3- Additional Notes Flashcards
Associative learning
Classical and Operant conditioning
Classical- Pavlov’s Dogs (2 stimuli), Little Albert
-acquisition
Operant- BF Skinner- pos/neg (behavior, response) reinforcement/punishment– voluntary behavior
pos punishment = aversive conditioning
Behaviorism = test behavior, not response; all behaviors that
Learning/behaviorist theory - language acquisition is by operant conditioning
Operant: primary reinforcer: treat after trick (fish for dolphin after trick)
secondary reinforcer = conditioned reinforcer = trick whenever trainer present b/c may give treat
Operant - shaping- reward broader to specific behaviors- break it down and build towards end behavior
Acquisition
when stimulus-response becomes conditioned
(the process of classical conditioning)
UCS-UCR
NS-no response
CS-CR
Extinction
Becoming habituated to CS not bringing the US with it
DEMINISHED CR
-spontaneous recovery
Discrimination + Generalization
Habituation + Dehabituation
- Habituation- get used to something
- Dehabituation- when the stimulus stops or is interrupted by another stimulus so you notice it again
ex) loud train, get used to it, it stops, notice it be quiet, re-notice when it’s loud again
* Habituation & Dishab- simplest organisms
Neg Reinforcement
-Escape learning- relieve immediate unpleasantness
(aspirin)
-Avoidance learning- reduce future unpleasantness
(failing test)
Reinforcement Schedules
-Variable Ratio most powerful and least likely to go extinct (ex- gambling)
VI = fishing; FR = commission; FI = salary
In variable schedules, don’t know how many times nee to do it, so perform behavior consistently
Fixed- adapt to meet requirements
Variable = consistent behavior; fixed = varying behavior b/c do bare minimum to get what’s needed
Factors in associative learning
Latent learning
-free of reward/incentive but demonstrated once possibility of award arises (ex- rat maze)
Problem-solving
ex) humans + puzzles
Potential solutions from mental set
Functional fixedness = dunno how to use object in non-traditional manner
-Trial and error, algorithms, deductive and inductive reasoning
Limitations:
Preparedness
-disposition to learn certain behaviors- easy to reinforce, hard to extinguish- such as a natural instinct
Instinctive drift
-hard to condition against natural instincts
Observational learning
-non-associative learning
Modeling
-what behaviors are acceptable based on repercussions
Bandura’s Bobo Doll
MIRROR NEURONS- in motor cortex and somatosensory cortex
-fire when perform action or when see someone else perform action
Encoding information
- automatic processing- w/o effort
- effortful/controlled processing- w/ effort
Weak: visual < auditory < elaborative (associate w/ LTM) < semantic (context, meaning) < self-reference effect (your own life)
Memorization techniques
- maintenance rehearsal = active repetition (working memory, STM)
- mnemonics for list of info; ex- FLAT PEG
- method of loci- locations along route/grocery list
- peg-word = numbers w/ rhymes
- clustering/chunking = chunks of info (ex- phone number)
–these last 2 are semantic encoding
Storing info
- Sensory memory- iconic, echoic - ex) an array of #s (<1 sec)
- STM - fade quickly w/o rehearsal - ex) phone numbers
- Working memory- integrates attention & function- ex) math
- STM and Working memory connected b/c the working needs info from STM and when working is done info to STM then gone or LTM
-LTM: explicit/declarative or implicit
Explicit = conscious recall Episodic = events; Semantic = facts
Implicit = unconscious; procedural = skills, tasks
whole-report vs partial report- test sensory memory
STM: 7+2 memory capacity, hippocampus
Working: hippocampus
LTM: elaborative rehearsal- associate w/ LTM; self-reference effect
flashbulb memory = explicit - episodic + semantic- remember stuff after remember emotionally important event (where were you when that happened)
LTM: explicit vs implicit
Implicit: procedural, priming
Explicit/declarative: Episodic, semantic, autobiographical
Retrieval
Relearn (faster recall 2nd time); Recall; Recognition
- location of learning = best recall (context effects); mental state (ex- state-dependent memory); serial position effects (primacy, recency)
- spacing effect; Ebbinghaus; relearn
Semantic Network
“web” of connected ideas; spreading activation
Retrieval cues: recall cue, context effect, source monitoring (origin of memory and is it real)
Priming- prepare brain to recall one thing w/ something related
pos priming- exposure to one stimulus improves processing of seconds stimulus; vs neg priming
Forgetting
- aging/disorders = memory dysfunction
- Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve (Decay) (reverse exponential) = retention function
-Interference- formation/retention of memories depends on other memories = retrieval error
- proactive interference = old interferes w/ new
- retroactive interference= new interferes w/ old
- esp when similar things
Prospective memory= remembering TTDL for future
Confabulation
- false memories in attempt to fill in gap
- we don’t record memories like a video camera does (we do not have reproductive memory)
- we have a reconstructive memory - may get false memories
Hard to distinguish false memories from repressed/recovered memories; does psychotherapy help? idk
Misinformation effect
-New info from outside source can alter memory of what you perceived
ex- car stop sign
Intrusion error = include false detail into memory
this is NOT the misinformation effect b/c the error is not from an outside source
Source Amnesia / Source-monitoring error
Conflate (combine) or confuse semantic and episodic memory— I know it happened to you but I thought it happened to me (or in dream)
A conditioned response would be stored in
implicit memory
Neuroplasticity
-neural connections adapt in response to stimuli (change env, learn info, damage)
As infant, many neural connections; as adult, fewer- but quality ones, where we adapt and keep the ones we need
seizure kids had half a brain removed, still lived a normal life b/c brain adapted and took role of removed part
Synaptic pruning
-weak neural connections broken, strong neural connections strengthened
NMDA (glu receptor) is needed for strengthening synaptic connections
Long term potentiation
neurons become more efficient at releasing nt
Cognition
- how our brain handles a ton of info
- experiences and sensations lead to thoughts & processing which result in knowledge and understanding
input -> processed -> outputs
-humans = large frontal lobe
Informational Processing Model
Theory: brain like computer
-to explain how brain encodes, stores, retrieves info
Thinking- sensation, encoding, storing stimuli
Analyze- to make it useful for decision making
Situational modification- for new situations
Obstacle evaluation- context & complexity evaluated to solve problem
too simple; our brain handles more than facts; also sensations, emotions, memories
Dual-coding theory = verbal and visual needed
Cognitive development + Piaget
- ability to think through and solve our problems
- Piaget
- Infants learn through instinctual interaction w/ environment
- schema
- new info processed via adaptation system- schema:
a) assimilate- new info cleanly placed into existing schemata
b) accommodation- modify existing schemata to place new info into it- ex) know how to eat w/ spoon, now fork
Piaget’s stages:
1) sensorimotor- 0-2 yrs
-alter env to meet own physical needs
-Circular repetitive reactions
(primary = initial chance occurrence; soothing = repeat- ex) suck thumb)
(secondary- change env + env response; ex) throw toys, parents put back)
End of stage: object permanence- objects exist even if you can’t see them- peekaboo stops working
Representational thought- even w/o view, knows object exists
2) Preoperational- 2-7 y/o
-Symbolic thinking/imagination, egocentrism, centration
-centration=center of focus on one aspect of phenomenon– can’t understand conservation- parts are conserved after deformed
End of stage: Learn conservation + understanding others’ feelings and perspectives
3) Concrete operational- 7-11 y/o- logical thoughts analyze concrete info
- includes constancy- dif cup sizes, same amount of water; also gains conservation
4) Formal operational- 11+- abstract ideas
- pendulum expt- methodologically change one variable at time to see what affects frequency
- hypothetical reasoning
Cognitive changes in LATE ADULTHOOD
Fluid intelligence, Crystallized intelligence
Fluid- problem solving, creativity, peaks in early adulthood
Crystallized- use learned skills/knowledge / past knowledge- peaks in middle adulthood; procedural
Both decline w/ age
Dementia- impaired memory, then judgement, confusion, changing personality
70% of all dementia patients have Alzheimer’s
Alzheimers = dementia, neurofibrillary tangles, B-amyloid plaques, sundowning (dysfunction in evening)
Korsakoff’s Syndrome- thiamine/B1 deficiency - retrograde/anterograde amnesia; CONFABULATION - make fabricated memories
Agnosia- can’t recognize objects, people, or sound- from physical damage like stroke or multiple sclerosis
Vygotsky - Culture & identity
Hereditary and env factors
- Fetal Alcohol syndrome- thin eyes, nose, lip
- Delirium- low blood sugar, low electrolytes, pH, infection, malnutrition–rapid fluctuation in cognitive function; reversible
Genetic:
- Antisocial personality disorder
- Down’s Syndrome- Trisomy 21
Consciousness
- awareness of world
- awareness of our existence in world
Alertness
- conscious, thinking
- prefrontal cortex and reticular formation of brainstem keeps one alert/awake
- –disconnect = coma
- high cortisol
- Beta waves- high frequency
EEG = 19 electrodes, half an hour
Alertness = physiological arousal = HR, breathing, BP, etc.- higher cortisol overall
Awake and Relaxed
- alpha waves
- eyes closed
- slower than beta, more synchronized
Sleep
- NREM1 and 2
- Stage 1: theta waves- slower freq, higher voltage
- Stage 2: theta waves + sleep spindles & K complexes
- Stage 3 & 4- slow wave sleep (SWS)- delta waves- low freq, high voltage– cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, increased GH release
Order: BAT-D
REM- rapid eye movement- closer to awake than asleep
-longer sleep = more time in REM- mimics wakefulness, B waves- dreams, consolidate memories on how to do procedures/tasks
Circadian Rhythm
- 24 hour cycle
- wake up b/c cortisol from adrenal cortex as light increases in morning
- Melatonin released from pineal gland as light decreases; get sleepy
Cortisol from adrenal cortex b/c light causes release of CRF = ACTH = cortisol
Dreaming
75% during REM
- Activation-Synthesis Theory
- -random activity of neural circuitry– brain interprets
- Problem-Solving Dream Theory
- -dreams help solve problems, not confined to reality
- Cognitive Process Dream Theory
- -same mental systems used asleep or awake; we randomly jump thought to thought bc stream of consciousness- same w/ dreams
- Neurocognitive Model of Dreaming
- bio + psych perspective- physiological changes
Sleep Disorders
Dyssomnias & Parasomnias
Dys- Hard to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
ex) Insomnia- less sleep
ex) Narcolepsy- spontaneous sleep; sleep paralysis
- —–cataplexy = loss of muscle control, sudden REM sleep
ex) Sleep Apnea- hard to breathe
- ——either when sleeping position blocks pharynx or central sleep apnea when medulla doesn’t signal to breathe
- —-hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations- when going to bed or waking up
Para- like “paranormal”- abnormal behavior during sleep
ex) Night terrors (kids mainly)- during slow wave sleep, anxiety, thrashing; hard to wake up
ex) Sleepwalking- also during SWS- do stuff, wake up and don’t remember doing it
Sleep deprivation- irritable, moody, slow reaction time, poor performance
too sleep deprived = psychosis- lose touch w/ reality
—Finally get sleep = REM Rebound- earlier REM, longer lasting
-a sleep deprived person has more alpha waves when they finally do get to sleep
Hypnosis & Meditation- altered states
Hypnosis- Pain control, memory enhancement; highly suggestible state = succumbs to others’ suggestions
Meditation- quiet mind- theta waves, slow alpha- like stage 1 sleep; stress relief
Consciousness-altering drugs
Depressants, Stimulants, Opiates, Hallucinogens
Mesolimbic reward pathways- dopaminergic pathways
Nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial forebrain bundle
(NAc, VTA, MFB)
-MFB connects the 2
Motivation, emotion- pos reinforcement of substance abuse
-the reward pathway evolved to promote survival behavior; drugs take advantage of it- drug addiction
Depressants
GABA- inhibitory nt; Cl- channels open, Cl- flows in, hyperpolarize
alcohol– also increases dopamine = euphoric; affects reasoning; motor skills
- —cirrhosis- liver scarring
- —-Wernicke’s Korsakoff syndrome-memory impairment, mental status changes
barbituates + benzodiazepines - ex) Xanax
-reduce anxiety but addictive
Stimulants
- Amphetamine, MDMA (synthetic), Ecstasy, Cocaine
- more dopamine, norEpi, serotonin
- cocaine decreases reuptake
ecstasy = hallucinogen + amphetamine
Opiates
Poppy plant
Opiate- naturally- morphine, codeine
Opioids- codones + heroin
Euphoria, pain relief
-opioid receptor
Methadone = synthetic opioid- addiction treatment
Hallucinogens
- LSD
- peyote
- mescaline
- ketamine
involves serotonin (5-HT) -enhanced sensory experiences + hallucinations
Marijuana
- stimulant, depressant, hallucinogen
- active ingredient: THC = tetrahydrocannibol
receptors: cannabinoid, glycine, opioid receptors
increase GABA and dopamine activity, like alcohol
(neural inhibition + pleasure)
Summary
increase GABA: alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, marijuana (depressants including marijuana)
increase dopamine, serotonin, norE: amphetamine, MDMA (synthetic amphetamine- ecstacy- also hallucinogen), cocaine
Components of Language
- Phonology = language sound; 40 phomenes in English Language
- Pragmatics- place language in context; ie who you’re talking to- boss vs friend
- Syntax- forming sentences
- Morphology- structure of words
- morphemes (ex- redesigned = 3 morphemes)
-Semantics = associate meaning w/ word
Language Development
5 stages:
1) 9-12 months- Babbling
2) 12-18 months- 1 word per month + inflections to add meaning
(ex- apple? = can I have it?)
3) 18-20 months- Language explosion- combine words
4) 2-3 years- sentences (3+ words)
5) 5 years- mastered language rules
Language Acquisition
range of nature to nurture
1) Nativist/ biological
- innate capacity for language
- innate ability = language acquisition device
* critical period (won’t learn after this point); sensitive period (evn has max effect on developmental ability)
* after puberty, hard to learn (seen with socially isolated, abused kids) :(
- Chomsky
2) Learning
- Operant conditioning
- all kids can learn all languages, but only learn the ones reinforced by env
- Skinner
3) Interactionist theory
- biological + social
- biological = brain groups sounds and meanings together
- social= child interacts w/ society + env so some circuits reinforced, others die
- social is what gives needs for language
Whorfian Hypothesis
Whorfian Hypothesis = Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
- language affects how we think about world
ex) light blue and dark blue is still blue in English, 2 dif colors in Russians so Russians are better at picking up subtle color differences - controversial
Brain Areas
- Broca’s- speech production
- Wernicke’s- language comprehension
-connected axons
Aphasia = language impairment
- Expressive aphasia = broca’s aphasia
- Receptive aphasia = wernicke’s aphasia = nonsensical speech
Conduction aphasia- bundle of axons connecting the 2 areas
- cannot repeat what has already been said
- maybe pronounciation
arcuate fasciculus connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s
Heuristic
- shortcuts/rules of thumb
- may have flaws
- representative: librarian, professor
- base rate fallacy: HHHHH vs HHTTH coin flip
Bias
Disconfirmation principle: evidence may prove sol’n doesn’t work
Confirmation bias = only accept evidence that supports belief
Overconfidence = think your belief is infallible
Hindsight bias = “I knew that would happen”
Belief perseverance = idc about your evidence it’s wrong, i’m right
Intelligence
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence -8 types Linguistic, Logical-mathematical [IQ] Musical, Visual-Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
Stanford-Binet IQ test
mental age/actual age as a %age
Mean: 100
Sternberg
Triarchic theory of intelligence
analytical
creative
practical
There also exists a theory of emotional intelligence– ex) empathy
