2. research methods Flashcards
What is primary data?
data generated by the researcher during the actual process of research
e.g. questionnaires, interviews and observations
What is secondary data?
data that already exists
e.g. historical records, official statistics, government reports, diaries, autobiographies, novels, newspapers, films and recorded music
What is quantitative data?
data in the form of numbers
e.g. statistics
Why is quantitative data useful?
useful for measuring the strength of possible relationships between various factors, e.g. age and internet use, and ethnicity and educational attainment
What is qualitative data?
all types of data that are not in the form of numbers
e.g. observations, interviews, written sources, pictures
How is qualitative data useful?
it can often provide a richer and more in depth picture of social life than numbers provided by quantitative data
What is meant by reliability?
whether another researcher, if repeating research using the same method for the same research on the same or similar group would achieve the same results
What is meant by validity?
validity is concerned with notions of truth: how far the findings of research actually provide a true or genuine picture of what is being studied
What is positivism?
the view that society and human behaviour can be studied scientifically
- positivists look to provide solutions to social issues through using scientific research methods to find patterns in behaviour
What methods do positivists prefer?
quantitative methods and statistical tests in order to find a causal relationship between 2 factors
How did positivists conduct research?
using large-scale research methods, such as: questionnaires, official and non-official statistics, lab and field experiments, structured interviews and observations, content analysis
What do interpretivists believe?
they want to gain an understanding of the interpretations and meanings that influence an individual’s behaviour and how people see and understand the world around them
What is verstehen?
the understanding of human behaviour by putting yourself in the position of those being studied and trying to see things from their point of view
What type of data do interpretivists prefer?
qualitative including: participant and sometimes non-participant observation, informal and unstructured interviews and personal accounts
Give an example of an interpretivist study?
Atkinson (1978) study of suicide:
- argues that suicide statistics are simply social constructions reflecting the behaviour of coroners, doctors, relatives and their definitions of suicide
What is P.E.T?
Practical issues
Ethical issues
Theoretical issues
What is meant by practical issues?
the logistics of an experiment:
- funding, ease of access, time available, researcher’s skills
What is meant by ethical issues?
the conduct of the research:
- any harmful consequences, informed consent, accuracy and honesty
What is meant by theoretical issues?
whether a Marxist, Functionalist, Feminist, positivist or an interpretivist approach should be applied.
What are lab experiments?
they take place in a controlled environment and the researcher is able to control all of the variables that might influence a participant’s behaviour
- they manipulate the IV and measure changes in the participant’s behaviour
Strengths and weaknesses of lab experiments?
+ increased reliability
- decreased validity
What are field experiments?
take place in the participant’s natural environment, often without their knowledge
- researcher still manipulates the IV and measures the DV but cannot control any extraneous variables
- can only make assumptions based on correlations between one behaviour and another
Strengths and weaknesses of field experiments
+ increased validity
- decreased reliability
What is meant by operationalise?
making variables measurable and changeable
What are natural experiments?
in natural real life environments and the IV is naturally occurring
What is the comparative method?
used by positivists
e.g. Durkheim’s study on suicide where he collected statistics from a number of countries
+ compared suicide levels
What are questionnaires?
usually designed to produce data that can be easily quantified
What 2 main types of questions may be asked in a questionnaire?
open and closed
- open = ask respondents to answer questions in their own words; the respondents have more freedom
- closed = the range of responses is fixed by the researcher; the answers are easily quantifiable
What is random sampling?
every member of the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected; every name is given a number + then a list of random numbers is used to select a sample
Strengths and weaknesses of random sampling
+ avoids bias
- not necessarily representative
What is stratified random sampling?
the sample frame is divided into groups or strata which reflect the general population e.g. age, gender, ethnicity and class
Strength of stratified random sampling
+ more representative than random sampling
What is quota sampling?
the sample selection isn’t random; the researcher fills their quota from the first available bodies
Strengths and weaknesses of quota sampling
+ simpler, quicker and cheaper
- less likely to produce a representative sample
What is snowball sampling?
the researcher finds someone who fits the bill and they are asked to find another person who fits and so on
Strengths and weaknesses of snowball sampling
+ successful in creating a sample frame
- unlikely to be representative as its isn’t random
What is systematic sampling?
a researcher selects every nth person on the sampling frame to be part of the sample
- the nth person is selected by dividing the target population size by the desired sample size
Strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling
+ simpler and more straightforward
+ lack of bias
- difficulty gaining access to a list of a larger population
What is cluster sampling?
divide a population into clusters, such as schools or districts, and then randomly select some of these clusters as your sample
Strengths and weaknesses of cluster sampling
+ simple
- participants may not be representative
