13. The infinitive and the participles Flashcards
13.1.1. THE SIMPLE INFINITIVE
The simple infinitive is the basic form under which verbs are listed in dictionaries.
13.1.1.
13.1.2. THE COMPOUND INFINITIVE
The infinitive of the auxiliaries haben, sein and werden can be combined with the pas participle of a verb to form compound infinitives:
perfect infinitive (with haben or sein):
- gesehen haben
- angekommen sein
passive infinitive (with werden or sein):
- verletzt werden
- verletzt sein
perfect passive infinitive:
- verletzt worden sein
The German perfect infinitive is used to show that an action took place before that of the main verb. This is similar to English:
- Sie muss das Buch lesen
- (= She must read the book)
- Sie muss das Buch gelesen haben
- (= She must have read the book)
13.1.2.
13.1.3. THE INFINITIVE WITH AND WITHOUT “ZU”
In some constructions in German, the infinitive is accompanied by the particle “zu”, whilst in others a so-called bare infinitive is used, without “zu”:
- Ich riet ihr zum Arzt zu gehen
- (= I advised her to go to the doctor)
- Ich konnte nicht zum Arzt gehen
- (= I couldn’t go to the doctor)
13.1.3.
- 1.4. THE FORM OF THE INFINITIVE WITH “ZU”
a. With simple verbs and verbs with inseparable prefixes
“zu” comes immediately before the verb and is separated from it in writing:
- Sie ging an zu schreiben
- Ich war bereit zu verhandeln
- Wir kamen auf dieses Thema zu sprechen
- Es gefiel mir mich mit ihr zu unterhalten
b. With verbs with a separable prefix
“zu” is placed between the prefix and the verb. The whole is written as a single word.
- Sie hatte vor ihn anzurufen
- Es war schön euch wiederzusehen
- Es wäre wohl besser ihr davon abzuraten
- Sie wusste mit diesem Mann umzugehen
Similarly, if a separable prefix precedes an inseparable one:
- Es fällt mir nicht ein ihm anzuvertrauen.
c. With compound infinitives
“zu” precedes the auxiliary “haben”, “sein” or “werden”:
- Er verleugnet es sie betrogen zu haben.
- (= He denies having deceived her.)
- Ihr gefällt es nicht betrogen zu werden.
- (= She doesn’t like being deceived.)
- Sie behauptete betrogen worden zu haben.
- (= She claimed to have been deceived.)
Similarly, “zu” comes between the main verb and a modal auxiliary:
- Es freut mich Sie hier begrüßen zu dürfen.
- (= It is a pleasure to be able to welcome you here.)
13.1.4.
13.2.1. THE INFINITIVE WITH “ZU” OCCURS IN A REDUCED CLAUSE
In German this is called the “Infinitivsatz”. It can depend on a noun, verb or adjective in a full clause within the same sentence. The infinitive with “zu” comes at the end of its clause, i.e. in the same position as the finite verb in a subordinate clause.
- Er fing heftig zu weinen.
- (= He began to cry bitterly.)
- Er gab mir die Erlaubnis in Berlin zu bleiben.
- (= He gave me the permission to stay in Berlin.)
- Er ist nicht schwer eine fremde Sprache zu lernen.
- (= It is not difficult to learn a foreign language.)
13.2.1.
- 2.2. THE POSITION OF THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE WITH “ZU”
a. The infinitive clause is usually quite separable from the main clause
i. e. it is normally enclosed inside the clause it depends on, coming after whatever part of the verb comes in last position in that clause.
- Sie hatten beschlossen vor dem Rathaus zu warten
- (NOT: Sie hatten vor dem Rathaus zu warten beschlossen)
- Wir hatten vor im Urlaub nach Rom zu fliegen
- (NOT: Wir hatten im Urlaub nach Rom zu fliegen vor)
- … weil er sich bemüht hat rechtzeitig fertig zu sein.
- (Not: … weil er sich rechtzeitig fertig zu sein bemüht hat).
b. In a few contexts the infinitive clause can be (or must be) enclosed within the main clause it depends on.
These constructions are exceptions to the general rule given under (a), and the infinitive clause comes inside the main clause:
(i) Enclosure is the rule with the semi-auxiliary verbs:
- … bevor sein Duft ihn zu ersticken drohte.
- Seine Brutalität ist nicht mehr zu ertragen gewesen.
(ii) Enclosure is possible with some other common verbs, although it is never obligatory. It is more common in subordinate clauses than with the compound tenses:
- Dass sie ihn entdeckt zu haben glaubte, war ein Beweis dafür, dass… (OR: Dass sie glaubte ihn entdeckt zu haben,…)
- Du hast mir das zu tun versprochen (OR: Du hast mir versprochen das zu tun).
Verbs which are frequently used like this are: (??? 9 verbs). In very formal registers enclosed infinitive clauses may be found with other verbs and phrases, but such constructions can sound rather stilted.
c. Incorporation of infinitive and main clause.
If there is only the finite verb and its subject in the main clause, the infinitive clause can be incorporated with the main clause by splicing the object of the infinitive into it.
- Er wagte die Reise aus diesem Grunde nicht abzubrechen (= He didn’t dare to break his journey for this reason).
- Diesen Vorgang wollen wir zu erklären versuchen (= We want to try to explain this series of events).
This construction is restricted to formal registers. It is usual only with those verbs which regularly enclose an infinitive clause.
d. Infinitive clauses depending on relative clauses.
The German equivalent of English constructions such as “a man whom I tried to kill” typically has the infinitive clause enclosed within the relative clause, e.g. “ein Mann, den ich zu töten versuchte.
- … die Person, deren Gesicht ich zu erraten versucht hatte. (= the person whose face I had tried to recognise).
- … kein Mann, den zu beseitigen eine Revolution gelohnt hätte (= not a man whom it would have been worth a revolution to get rid of).
Alternatively, if there is only a simple infinitive clause (i.e. one consisting only of “zu” plus the infinitive), it can follow the finite verb, e.g. “ein Mann, den er versuchte zu töten”.
13.2.2.
b.
(ii) anfangen, beginnen, hoffen, meinen, trachten (aspirer), vermögen (être à même de), versuchen, wagen, wünschen
- 2.3. AN INFINITIVE CLAUSE WITH “ZU” CAN BE THE SUBJECT OF A VERB
a. A German infinitive clause used as he subject of a verb can correspond in English to an infinitive clause or to a clause with an ing- form
In many contexts a choice exists in English which is lacking in German, since German does not use present participles in the way the ing-form is used in English. The finite verb has the ending of the third person singular:
- Ihn zu überzeugen wird nicht leicht sein.
- (= To convince him / Convincing him won’t be easy).
- So etwas zu erlauben ist unerhört.
- (= To allow / allowing that kind of thing is outrageous.)
- Ihr Ziel ist einen Roman zu schreiben.
- (= Her aim is to write / writing a novel.)
b. If a subject infinitive clause is short, it can, optionally, lack “zu”
This is most frequent with the verb “sein” and in set phrases:
- Lange Auto (zu) fahren ist sehr anstrengend.
- (= Driving a car for long periods is very strenuous.)
- Irren ist menschlich.
- (= To err is human.)
c. A subject infinitive clause which follows the main verb is often anticipated by “es” in the main clause
- Es war mir nicht möglich früher zu kommen.
- (= It wasn’t possible for me to come earlier.)
- Ihm steht (es) nicht zu ein Urteil zu fällen.
- (= It’s not up to him to pass judgement.)
13.2.3.
- 2.4. MANY VERBS CAN HAVE AN INFINITIVE CLAUSE WITH “ZU” AS THEIR OBJECT
a. A German infinitive clause used as the object of a verb can correspond to an English infinitive clause or a clause with an ing-form.
In English the choice of infinitive or ing-form depends on the individual verb used:
- Ich hoffe dich bald wiedersehen zu können.
- (= I hope to be able to see you again soon.)
- Ich gebe zu das gesagt zu haben.
- (= I admit having said that.)
- Ich habe vor sie morgen zu besuchen.
- (= I intend to visit them / visiting them tomorrow.)
b. In some contexts, it is the subject of the main verb which is taken as the subject of the infinitive clause, but in other contexts it is the object.
Compare the following stance, where the subject of “versprechen” is understood as the subject of “mitzunehmen”:
- Christian versprach Ellen sie mitzunehmen.
- (= Christian promised Ellen to take her with him.)
With this one, where the object of bitten is understood as the subject of mitzunehmen:
- Christian bat Ellen ihn mitzunehmen.
- (= Christian asked Ellen to take him with her.)
What is understood to be the subject of the infinitive depends on the sense of the verbs involved and the context. In practice English and German generally agree on whether the subject or object of the main verb is not to be understood as the subject of the infinitive. More examples:
- Er gab zu sich geirrt zu haben.
- (= He admitted having made a mistake.)
- Sie hat ihm geraten die Ausstellung zu besuchen.
- (= She advised him to see the exhibition.)
However, there are one or two constructions where there are significant differences between the two languages:
(i) There are fewer verbs in German than English which allow an object to be taken as the subject of a following infinitive clause. In particular, it is not possible with verbs of wishing, desiring, saying, knowing, thinking and the like. With these a dass- or wenn-clause has to be used in German, not an infinitive clause:
- Sie will, dass ich mit ihr gehe.
- (= She wants me to go with her.)
- Ich möchte nicht, dass er irgendein Missverständnis gibt.
- (= I don’t want there to be any misunderstanding.)
- Ich erwarte, dass sie bald nach Flensburg umzieht.
- (= I expect her to move to Flensburg.)
- Mir wäre es lieber, wenn Sie hier nicht rauchen würden.
- (= I would prefer you not to smoke here.)
- Sage ihm doch, dass er warten soll.
- (= Tell him to wait, though.)
- Ich wusste, dass es ein Irrtum war.
- (= I knew it to be a mistake.)
It is not possible, either, to use these verbs in the passive with a following infinitive clause. Thus, there is no direct equivalent in German for English constructions of the type, and subordinate clause has to be used:
- Man erwartet, dass sie bald nach Flensburg umzieht.
- (= She is expected to move to Flensburg soon.)
- Man sagte uns / Uns wurde gesagt, dass wir warten sollten.
- (= We were told to wait.)
(ii) With some verbs the subject of the infinitive has to be understood as indefinite (i.e. = “man”):
- Der Präsident hat angewiesen alle Universitäten zu schließen.
- (= The president has instructed that all the universities should be closed.)
- Er ordnete an die Gefangenen zu entlassen.
- (= He ordered the prisoners to be released.)
- Helmut befahl früh aufzubrechen.
- (= Helmut ordered an early start.)
Other verbs commonly used this way are (??? 15 verbs)
(iii) With a few verbs, the subject or the object (or both) can be taken to be the subject of the infinitive:
- Er schlug mir vor das Zimmer aufzuräumen.
- (= He suggested that I/he/we should tidy the room up.)
Other verbs which can be used like this are (???3 verbs)
c. An infinitive clause can be used in German after some verbs denoting mental processes
The English equivalent usually require a subordinate clause:
- Er behauptete (glaubte, meinte, war überzeugt) mich gesehen zu haben.
- (= He maintained (believed, thought, was convinced) that he had seen me.)
This construction is more usual in writing than in speech, where a subordinate clause will often be preferred, e.g. “Er meinte, er hätte mich gesehen / dass er mich gesehen hätte.”
d. A following object infinitive may be anticipated by “es”
- Ich konnte es kaum ertragen ihn so leiden zu sehen.
- (= I could hardly bear to see him suffer like that.)
- Sie hat (es) versäumt die Miete zu zahlen.
- (= She failed to pay the rent.)
e. When verbs which governs a prepositional object are followed by an infinitive clause, it is frequently anticipated by a prepositional adverb
- Ich verlasse mich darauf ihn zu Hause zu finden.
- (= I am relaying on finding him at home.)
- Ich erinnere mich (daran) sie voriges Jahr in Bremen gesehen zu haben.
- (= I remember having seen her in Bremen last year.)
13.2.4.
b. (ii)
- anregen (stimuler, inciter qn à)
- auffordern (prier qn de. inviter qn.)
- beantragen
- befürworten
- bitten
- drängen
- eintreten
- empfehlen
- ersuchen
- fordern
- plädieren
- raten
- veranlassen
- verlangen
- warnen
b. (iii)
anbieten, einreden, zusichern.
13.2.5. INFINITIVE CLAUSES WITH “SEMI-AUXILIARY” VERBS
Some verbs have a closer link with a following infinitive clause than others. Their main role is to modify the meaning of the verb used in the infinitive in some way, like a modal auxiliary verb, and it is useful to think of them as «semi-auxiliary» verbs.
English has a much wider range of such «semi-auxiliary» verbs than German. The natural German equivalent of many of these English verbs is a construction with an adverb, e.g. “Ich spiele gern Tennis ; Ich sah sie zufällig in der Stadt.”
A feature of these semi-auxiliary verbs in German is that they always enclose the infinitive in dependent clauses or compound tenses:
- … da er den eben Angekommenen zu erkennen schien.
- … als das Boot zu kentern drohte.
- Sie hat uns zu verstehen gegeben, dass sie morgen kommt.
These verbs are also often incorporated with a dependent infinitive clause. The most important verbs which can be used as semi-auxiliaries in German are listed below. Many of them have other uses and meanings.
BEKOMMEN = get
- Und wenn ich dich zu fassen bekomme…
- (= And if I lay hands on you…)
BELIEBEN = like, wish.
Nowadays archaic except in an ironic sense:
- Sie belieben zu scherzen
- (= You must be joking)
BLEIBEN = remain.
The following infinitive has a passive force:
- Die Gesetzesvorlage bleibt noch zu diskutieren.
- (= The draft bill still remains to be discussed.)
BRAUCHEN = need.
In this sense it only occurs with a negative (or with nur or bloß). This is the most common negative to müssen:
- Du brauchst nur anzurufen, und ich komme sofort.
- (= You only need to call and I’ll come straight away.)
- Eine Sprache, die sie nie zu erlernen brauchten.
- (= A language which they never needed to learn.)
DROHEN = threaten.
The subject is usually inanimate in this use:
- Oskars Herz drohte zu Stein zu werden.
- (= Oskar’s heart threatened to turn to stone.)
GEBEN = give.
Used mainly with denken, erkennen, verstehen.
- … weil sie uns zu verstehen gab, dass sie bald kommen würde.
- (= … because she gave us to understand that she would be coming soon.)
GEDENKEN = propose.
It is restricted to elevated, formal registers:
- die Zahl der Truppen, die die Nato nach Bosnien zu schicken gedenkt.
- (= The number of troops which Nato proposes to send to Bosnia.)
GEHEN = go.
The use of gehen as a semi-auxiliary is colloquial. It expresses a possibility and the infinitive has passive force:
- Die Uhr get zu reparieren
- (= the clock can be repaired.)
HABEN = have.
Expresses necessity or obligation. It is a (rather less frequent) alternative to müssen or sollen:
- Was habe ich zu bezahlen?
- (= What have I got to pay?)
- Ich habe mehrere Briefe zu schreiben.
- (= I have several letters to write.)
- Sie haben hier nichts zu suchen.
- (= You have no business here.)
With some verbs (especially tun), this use of haben is idiomatic and there is little sense of obligation or necessity:
- Das hat mit dieser Sache nichts zu tun.
- (= That’s got nothing to do with this matter.)
- Das hat wenig zu bedeuten.
- (= That doesn’t mean very much.)
KOMMEN = come.
Expresses a (chance) result:
- Es war nicht meine Absicht, dass wir auf dieses Thema zu sprechen kamen.
- (= It was not my intention for us to het onto this subject.)
- Wie arrangierten es so, dass ich neben ihr zu sitzen kam.
- (= We arranged it so that I cam to sit next to her.)
PFLEGEN = to be accustomed to.
Is restricted to literary registers:
- Dann pflegte ich öfters zwischen den schweren Eisenstangen hindurch in Katharinas Stall einzutreten.
- (= Then I often used to go through the heavy iron bars into Katharina’s pen.)
SCHEINEN = seem
- Ihm schien es zu gefallen.
- (= He seem to like it.)
- Das Dorf Lidice, wohin die Spuren der beiden Attentäter zu führen schienen, wurde zerstört.
- (= The village of Lidice where the tracks of the two assassins seemed to lead, was destroyed.)
SEIN = be
As a semi-auxiliary, is the equivalent of können (or sometimes müssen or sollen). The following infinitive has passive force:
- Ist der Direktor heute zu sprechen?
- (= Can I see the manager today?)
- Die Fahrausweise sind auf Verlangen vorzuzeigen.
- (= The tickets are to be shown on demand.)
- Das Haus ist zu verkaufen.
- (= The house is for sale.)
STEHEN has a similar sense to sein, and the following infinitive also has passive force. It is used chiefly with befürchten, erwarten and hoffen:
- Es steht zu erwarten, dass er bald nachgibt.
- (= It can be expected that he will soon give in.)
SUCHEN = try, seek,
is restricted to formal registers:
- eine Ordnung, die die selbständige militärische Betätigung des Adels einzuschränken suchte.
- (= a decree which sought to limit the independent military activities of the nobility.)
VERSPRECHEN = promise.
In this sense, versprechen refers to involuntary action with something desirable in the offing. The subject is normally inanimate:
- Das Wetter verspricht schön zu werden.
- (= The weather promises to be nice).
- Wir sind froh, weil das Unternehmen zu gedeihen verspricht.
- (= We are happy because the enterprise promises to prosper.)
VERSTEHEN = be able to, know how to:
- Sie war in Verhältnisse geschleudert worden, mit denen sie nicht umzugehen verstand.
- (= She had been catapulted into circumstances which she didn’t know how to cope with.)
WISSEN = know how to.
In this sense, wissen is similar to verstehen:
- Er weiß mit den Leuten umzugehen.
- (= He knows how to deal with people.)
- Wie soll zurechtkommen, wer sich in das Gegebene nicht zu schicken weiß?
- (= How is anyone going to manage who doesn’t know how to come to terms with reality?)
13.2.5.
13.2.6. THE INFINITIVE WITH “ZU” AFTER ADJECTIVES
In some infinitive constructions after “sein” used with an adjective, the subject of “sein” has to be understood as the object of the infinitive:
- Diese Aufgabe ist einfach zu lösen.
- (= This problem is simple to solve.)
- Er ist leicht zu überzeugen.
- (= He is easy to convince.)
- Diese Frage ist schwer zu beantworten.
- (= This question is difficult to answer.)
This construction is common in English, but it is only possible with very few adjectives in German, i.e. einfach, leicht, schwer, schwierig.
In German, too, the construction is only possible if the verb takes an accusative object, i.e. it cannot occur with verbs like “helfen”. These other English constructions have quite different German equivalents:
- Es war schön, sie zu kennen.
- i.e. NOT *Sie war schön zu kennen.
- (= She was nice to know.)
- Meiner Schwester zu helfen war schwierig.
- i.e. NOT *Meine Schwester war schwierig zu helfen.
- (= My sister was difficult to help.)
- Zum Trinken war der Kaffee zu heiß.
- i.e. NOT *Der Kaffee war zu heiß zu trinken.
- (= The coffee was too hot to drink.)
In English, we can also use these adjectives attributively (i.e. in front of a noun), with an infinitive depending on them, e.g. «that is a difficult question to answer». This construction doesn’t exist in German, and other constructions must be used.
- Diese Frage zu beantworten is schwer.
- (= That is a difficult question to answer.)
- Das ist eine schwer zu beantwortende Frage.
- (= That is a difficult question to answer.)
- Es ist ein leicht erreichbarer Ort.
- (= It’s an easy place to find.)
- Es war dumm diese Frage gestellt zu haben.
- (= That was a silly question to have asked.)
13.2.6.
13.2.7. THE INFINITIVE WITH “ZU” AFTER PREPOSITIONS
An infinitive with “zu” can be used after a few prepositions, i.e. um, ohne, (an)statt and außer. Such constructions have special meanings and are the equivalent of adverbial clauses.
a. The construction “um… zu”
(i) It can express purpose, often corresponding to English «in order to». It is the equivalent of a clause introduced by “damit”.
- Ich konnte nichts tun um ihn zu beruhigen.
- (= I couldn’t do anything to reassure him.)
- Er zündete das Haus an um die Versicherung zu kassieren.
- (= He set fire to the thous (in order) to collect on the insurance.)
- Das war kein Wasser um das Feuer zu löschen.
- (= There was no water to put the fire out.)
(ii) It is used after an adjective qualified by “zu” or “genug”:
- Er ist zu jung um alles zu verstehen.
- Er ist alt genug um alles zu verstehen.
If the subject of the two clauses is different, the conjunction als dass is used, e.g. “Er ist nicht zu jung / nicht alt genug, als dass wir es ihm erklären können.”
(iii) It can be used simply to link clauses, as an equivalent to und:
- Er betrat die Gaststätte um sie nach kurzer Zeit wieder zu verlassen.
- (= He went into the restaurant, only to leave it again after a short time.)
This construction is limited to formal writing and has been criticized by stylists, as it might be misunderstood to imply purpose.
b. “Ohne… zu”
This corresponds to English «without» followed by an ing-form.
- Wir konnten nie mehr Karten spielen, ohne an Henriette zu denken.
- (= We could never play cards again without thinking of Henriette.)
- Er verließ das Haus ohne gesehen zu werden.
- (= He left the house without being seen.)
With a change of subject, the conjunction “ohne dass” is used, e.g. : “Er verließ das Haus, ohne dass ich ihn sah.”
c. “(an)staat… zu”
This corresponds to «instead of» followed by an ing-form.
- Er hat gespielt (an)staat zu arbeiten.
- (= He played instead of working.)
A clause with “(an)staat dass, e.g. Er hat gespielt, (an)staat dass er gearbeitet hat, is an alternative to this construction. No change of subject is possible with either (an)staat zu or (an)staat dass.
d. “außer… zu”
This corresponds to English «except», «apart from», or «besides» with an infinitive.
- Was konnten sie tun außer zu protestieren?
- (= What could they do except protest?)
The use of “außer” with a following infinitive is quite recent. A common alternative is to use the preposition außer with an infinitive noun, e.g. “Sie tat nichts außer Schlafen.”
With a different subject, a clause with the conjunction “außer dass” is used.
e. German equivalents for other English constructions with prepositions and a following infinitive
In German only the prepositions “um”, “ohne”, “(an)staat” and “außer” can be used with a following infinitive. English can use other prepositions, notably «for» et «with», with a following infinitive. These correspond to different constructions in German
(i) English «for» followed by a noun or a pronoun and an infinitive:
In a few contexts this corresponds in German to a noun with “für”, or a noun in the dative main clause:
- Es ist Zeit für uns loszugehen.
- (= It was time for us to leave.)
- Es war ihm unmöglich, das auch nur zu verstehen.
- '= It was impossible for him even to understand that.)
However, the most usual German equivalent is a construction with a subordinate clause, with the conjunction used depending on the sense:
- Ihr lag es sehr daran, dass er die Stelle annahm.
- (= She was very keen for him to take the job.)
- Hier sind ein paar Formulare, die Sie ausfüllen sollen.
- (= Here are a few forms for you to fill in.)
- Er wartete darauf, dass sie ankam.
- (= He was waiting for her to arrive.)
- Sie bringt die Fotos, damit wir sie uns ansehen können.
- (= She’s bringing the photographs for us to look at)
- Sie muss schon sehr krank sein, wenn ihre Mutter ein Telegram schickt.
- (= She must be very ill for her mother to send a telegram.)
(ii) English «with» followed by a noun or a pronoun and an infinitive:
Depending on the sense, the German equivalent for this can be a subordinate clause with “da” or “weil”, a main clause with “und”, or a relative clause:
- Da ich so viele Briefe schreiben muss, werde ich wohl nicht ins Kino gehen können.
- (= With so many letters to write, I probably shan’t be able to go to the cinema.)
- Sie waren nur auf der Durchreise in München und konnten dort nur ein paar Stunden verbringen.
- (= They were just passing through Munich, with no more than an hour or two to spend.)
- Auch der Sonntag, an dem sie nicht ins Büro ging, verging irgendwie.
- (= Even Sunday, with no office to go to, passed somehow.)
13.2.7.
- 2.8. ENGLISH USES INFINITIVES IN SEVERAL CONSTRUCTIONS WHERE AN INFINITIVE WITH “ZU” IS NOT USED IN GERMAN
a. English infinitives in indirect statements and questions
e. g. «He told me how to do it». In German a subordinate clause (often with “sollen”, “müssen” or “können”) is used:
- Er sagte mir, wie ich es machen soll.
- (= He told me how to do it.)
- Ich weiß nicht, was ich tun soll/muss.
- (= I don’t know what to do.)
- Woher weiß man, welchen Kopf man drücken soll?
- (= How do you tell which button to press?)
b. English infinitives used after a noun as attributes
e. g. «the person to apply to». A relative clause is used in German:
- Ich möchte ein Paar Handschuhe, die zu meinem Wintermantel passen.
- (= I want a pair of gloves to go with my winter coat.)
- das Einzige, was man tun kann.
- (= The only thing to do.)
These constructions are especially common after superlatives:
- Er war der Erste (der Letzte, der beste Spieler), der gekommen ist.
- (= He was the first (the last, the best player) to come.)
13.2.8.
- 2.9. OTHER USES OF THE INFINITIVE WITH “ZU”
a. In comparative phrases with “als”
“zu” can be omitted, although it is more usual for it to be included:
- Du kannst nicht Besseres tun als zu Hause (zu) bleiben.
- (= Man sollte lieber erst alles gründlich besprechen als sofort (zu) streiten.)
b. In exclamations
These are very similar to the corresponding English constructions:
- Un zu denken, dass es ihr nichts bedeutet hat!
- (= And to think it didn’t mean anything to her!)
- Ach, immer hier zu bleiben!
- (= Oh, to stay here for ever!)
c. In small ads
- Zwei-Zimmer-Wohnung ab 1. Mai zu vermieten
- (= Two-room flat to let from May 1st)
13.2.9.
- THE USE OF THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT ZU
- 3.1. A few verbs are followed by an infinitive without “zu”
Such infinitives are placed at the end of the clause: “Sie will diese Briefe morgen schreiben.”
They are enclosed in subordinate clauses and compound tenses: “Ich weiß, dass sie diese Briefe morgen schreiben will” or “Sie hat diese Briefe heute schreiben wollen”.
The infinitive without “zu” is used with a small number of common verbs:
a. The modal auxiliaries
- Sie darf heute nicht ausgehen.
- Wir können es nicht verhindern.
- Ich musste heute früh aufstehen.
- Er wird mir nicht helfen wollen.
Ich colloquial German brauchen is often treated as a modal auxiliary and used with a bare infinitive, e.g. “Sie brauchen heute nicht hingehen”.
However, many German speakers consider this to be substandard, and “brauchen” is normally used with “zu” in writing: “She brauchen heute nicht hinzugehen”.
b. A few verbs of perception
i. e. “fühlen”, “hören”, “sehen”, “spüren”, e.g.:
- Ich sah ihn ins Zimmer kommen.
- Sie hörte das Kind weinen.
- Er fühlte sein Herz klopfen.
- Ich spürte seinen Einfluss wachsen.
With these verbs, a clause with wie is an alternative to the infinitive construction, e.g.:
- Ich hörte, wie das Kind weinte
- Ich spürte, wie sein Einfluss wuchs.
- Ich sah, wie der Polizist sich nach dem alten Mann umsah.
This tends to be more frequent than the infinitive construction in certain contexts, in particular if the sentence is long or complex, with the verbs “fühlen” and “spüren”, an in colloquial registers.
c. lassen
Lassen with a bare infinitive has two principal meanings:
(i) let, allow
- Er ließ mich das Buch behalten.
- (= He let me keep the book.)
- Lass sie doch hereinkommen!
- (= Do let her come in!)
In this sense lassen is often used reflexively with a similar force to a passive construction:
- Das lässt sich leicht ändern.
- (= That can easily be changed.)
- Das Buch lässt sich leicht lesen.
- (= The book is easy to read.)
(ii) cause, make
- Sie ließ den Schlosser in Tür reparieren.
- (= She had the locksmith fix the door.)
- Die Nachricht ließ ihn erblassen.
- (= The news made him turn pale.)
- Er ließ sich die Haare schneiden.
- (= He had his hair cut.)
lassen is never followed by a passive infinitive, but in both meanings the infinitive after lassen can have passive force:
- Er lässt die Bäume fällen.
- (= He has the trees felled.)
- Er ließ sich sehen.
- (= He allowed himself to be seen.)
- Sie ließen die Brücke von den Gefangen bauen.
- (= They had the bridge built by the prisoners.)
d. “Tun”
The use of “tun” with a bare infinitive is typical of colloquial speech.
- Er tut ja immer noch essen (= he’s still eating)
- Tust du mich auch verstehen? (= Do you understand me?)
Ich täte gern in Kino gehen (= I would like to go to the cinema).
This usage is generally considered substandard and not normally acceptable in writing. It is, however, permissible in written German to use “tun” in order to allow an emphasized verb to be placed first in the sentence: - Bewundern tu ich ihn nicht, aber er imponiert mir doch (= I don’t admire him, but he does impress me).
- Aber schmerzen tat es darum nicht weniger (= But it was less painful for all that).
e. Certain verbs of motion
i.e. “gehen”, “kommen”, “fahren”, “schicken”.
The verb in the infinitive expresses the purpose of going.
- Während ich öffnen ging (While I went to open the door).
- Kommst du heute schwimmen?
- Er fährt immer vormittags einkaufen.
- Sie hat den Großvater einkaufen geschickt (She sent grandfather shopping).
This usage is typically (but not only) colloquial. In everyday speech, too, the past tenses of “sein” can be used with a bare infinitive to mean “go”.
- Ich war heute Morgen schwimmen (I went swimming this morning)
- Er ist einkaufen gewesen (He went/has been shopping).
NB: “schicken” can be alternatively used with “zu” and an infinitive: This is most usual if the infinitive is fairly long:
- Sie hat den Großvater geschickt, Kartoffeln und Gemüse zu kaufen.
f. Bleiben, finden, and haben followed by a verb of position. - Er blieb im Zimmer sitzen. (= he stayed sitting in the room).
- Sie ist an den Ampel stehen geblieben (she stopped at the lights)
- Er hat sein Auto vor der Tür stehen (He’s got his car at the door).
- Sie hat einen Bruder in Köln wohnen (She’s got a brother living in Cologne).
- Sie fand das Buch auf dem Boden liegen (= she found the book lying on the floor).
“Stehen bleiben” (= stop) and “sitzen bleiben” (= repeat a year, at school)” have developed a distinct lexical meaning.
g. “heißen” (command), “helfen”, “lehren”, “lernen”
This verbs can be followed by a bare infinitive or an infinitive with “zu”:
- Sie hieß ihn schweigen (= She bade him be silent)
- Er hieß seine Truppen die Burg bis zum letzten Mann zu verteidigen (= He order his troops to defend the castle to the last man).
- … und jetzt hilf mir anpacken (and now give me a hand).
- Er half Carla die Weinflaschen zu öffnen.
- Sie lehrte mich kochen.
- Sie lehrte mich Suppe zu kochen.
Er lernte beim Militär Russisch sprechen/zu sprechen.
NB:
- This sense of “heißen”, i.e. “command”, is restricted to older literary language. In the sense “mean”, “heißen” is always followed by an infinitive without “zu”.
- “kennen lernen” (get to know) has developed a distinct lexical meaning.
The construction with “zu” tends to be used with longer and more complex infinitive clauses. However, the bare infinitive is preferred if the alternative is an awkward construction, e.g.:
- Es geht darum, die seit vierzig Jahren geforderte Freiheit der osteuropäischen Völker verwirklichen zu helfen (i.e. NOT zu verwirklichen zu helfen).
- = It is a matter of helping the peoples of Eastern Europe to realise the freedom which they have been demanding for forty years.
h. A few other verbs in certain constructions or idioms.
(i) With “machen” in a couple of idioms and a few other verbs:
- von sich reden machen (= become a talking point)
- jdn. etwas glauben machen (= convince sb. of sth.)
- jdn. gruseln/lachen/schwindeln/weinen/zittern machen (= make sb. have the creeps, laugh, feel dizzy, cry, tremble).
(ii) A bare infinitive is used as the complement of “heißen”, ‘be (the equivalent of)’, ‘mean’ and “nennen” ‘call’:
- Das heißt lügen (That amounts to lying)
Das hieße wieder von vorne anfangen (= that would mean starting again from scratch).
Das nennst du höflich sein (= you call that being polite!)
(iii) “legen” is followed by a bare infinitive in the idiom “sich schlafen legen” (= go to bed).
- Ich legte mich schlafen.
13.3.1.
13.3.2. THE USE OF THE INFINITIVE FOR A PAST PARTICIPLE
The infinitive is used rather than a past participle in the perfect tenses of some verbs used with a bare infinitive.
e.g. “Sie hat kommen wollen (NOT: gewollt).
This is the case with the following verbs:
a. The modal auxiliaries.
- Er hat heute ausgehen dürfen
- Er hat ihn sehen müssen
- Karl hatte Sie sehen wollen.
- Wir hätten Ihnen helfen können.
- Sie hätte es machen sollen.
“brauchen” also forms its perfect tenses with the infinitive rather than the past participle, whether used with an infinitive with “zu” or with a bare infinitive:
e.g. “Wir waren nicht (zu) warten brauchen.
b. “lassen”
- Sie hat den Schlosser die Tür reparieren lassen.
- Er hat sich die Haare schneiden lassen.
- Er hat sie in das Zimmer kommen lassen.
The infinitive of “lassen” is generally used rather than the past participle, but it is occasionally heard in the sense of “leaving something somewhere” (e.g. “Ich habe Kaffee und Kuchen stehen gelassen (more usual: “stehen lassen”)), and with the combinations “fallen lassen”, “liegen lassen”, etc.
c. “sehen”, “hören” and other verbs of perception.
With “sehen” and “hören”, the norm is to use the infinitive:
- Ich habe sie hereinkommen sehen (= I have seen her come in).
- Sie hatte ihn nicht kommen hören.
In colloquial speech, the past participle is sometimes used wit these verbs, e.g. “Sie hatte ihn nicht kommen gehört.”
This is usually regarded as substandard.
However, “fühlen” and “spüren” are now used almost exclusively with a past participle:
e.g. “Sie hat die Katastrophe kommen gefühlt”.
d. “helfen”, “heißen” and other verbs used with a bare infinitive.
Both the infinitive and the pas participle are accepted with all these verbs, but there are differences in frequency of usage.
(i) With “helfen” the infinitive is more usual than the past participle:
- Sie hat ihn den Koffer tragen helfen.
(ii) With “heißen” the infinitive and the past participle are equally common:
- Wer hat dich kommen heißen/geheißen?
(iii) With other verbs, i.e. “lehren”, “lehren”, “machen”, the infinitive is now very rarely used, and the past participle is the norm:
- Er hat sie lachen gemacht (unusual: lachen machen)
NB: In subordinate clauses the auxiliary precedes these double infinitives:
- Er sagte, dass sie es hätte machen sollen.
- … dass sie den Koffer hat tragen helfen.
13.3.2.
