world history Flashcards
American revolution: colonization of America?
- 1st colony set up by English at Jamestown (Virginia)
- 13th colony set up at Georgia in 1732
American revolution: causes: categories?
- economic
- social
- intellectual class’ role
- political
- immediate cause
American revolution: causes: economic?
-
Mercantilist policy of Britain: Britain framed economic policies in such a away that led to economic exploitation of Americans. eg.
- Navigation law of 1651: compulsory for American ships to attend British ports before leaving for other parts of the world
- Enumerated Commodities Act 1660: Britain maintained trading monopoly in crucial products of Americaa like potato, tobacco, cotton
- Industrial policy by which Americaan s were nt allowed to establish big production units
- Iron act, hat act, woollen act that forced Americans to import these items from Egland
- 1765 Stamp act to impose stamp taxes
- the trade and industry was well develped in the American colonies. This interwined the econmies of the states and created a pan-american colonies feeling of belongingness.eg. The wool and pork industry of pennsylvania was interlinked with corn produced in the southern colonies of Virginia, N and S carolina
American revolution: causes: social?
The rise of America as a ‘land of opportunity’ led to mass migrations into the colonies from Europe. This created a unique social str in america.
- Diversified society: people from various nationalities led to a more liberal and cosmopolitan society as opposed to the orthodox and elitist society of Britain of 18th century.
- detachment from motherland: while many of the British migrants were outlaws or the rejects or other refugees of the society, they still held some attachment to the motheland in the 17th century. But by the 18th century the second generation Americans self-identified as Americans
- dynamism: The rapid growth of AMerican colonies in the short span of a 100 yrs owing to the rich resources of the land and the effort of the settlers made America ‘a land of opportunity’. The American society developed as a materialistic society with a distinct culture of its own leading to ideological differences with British culture.
- dissatisfaction: over sharing the fruits of their labor with the British crown while being looked down upon as rejects.
American revolution: causes: role of intellectual class?
- spread of enlightenment and liberla thoughts from Europe including Republicanism: John Locke’s “power comes from people”
- The ideas of Locke, Harrington and Milton- believed that men had certain FRs which no govt had the right to infringe.
- Thomas Jefferson, inspired from French philosophers, asserted colonists’ right to rebellion and encouraged their increasing desire for independence
- Thomas Paine: published journal ‘common sense’ in which he explained economic exploitation of Britain and proposed independence as a solution
- Benjamin Franklin: established Philosophical society of America with multiple branches with the objective of awareness and awakening of the people
- Henry Patrick: “give me death or independence”
- Spread of industrialisation led to urbanisation and thereby increase i spread of education that spread the liberal ideas eg. Harvard uni founded in 1636, Yale uni founded in 1701
American revolution: causes: political?
political subservience
Each Colony had its Assembly and the elected members.
But, the nominated governor to each colony by the British Parliament. The Governors did not do anything without the permission of British Parliament.
Declaratory Act 1766 : Parliament/King has all rights to make laws for colonies
INtolerable Act 1774, in the aftermath of Boston tea party, banned political meetings
American revolution: causes: immediate causes?
- 7 yrs war betn england and France (1756-1763):
- During the war americans got the freedom to take their potatoes to different parts of the world. They got a taste of truly independent trade.
- defeat of France ended the french threat in the norther part of the colonies
- When Benjamin Franklin called 7 American colonies to join and create a front against brtish in 1754, they refused mainly on account of the danger posed by the french. But the removal of this threat in 1763 opened the possibility of the colonies coming together.
- Britain tried to recuperate its losses during the war be increasing tax on american people
- Tight control policy: all the laws which were loosely applied were now strcitly applied
- Currency Act, 1764: Americans can’t use own currency
- Sugar act: export sugar only to England
- Quartering act: Americans will have to pay for British soldiers staying in America
- Crown’s proclamation of 1763: To show a conciliatory approach towards red americans, the new PM George Grenville proclaimed that americans cannot cross and settle west of Applachian mountains. Another cause was English aristocrats had bought lands and sought rents from the settlers and wanted them to continue as renters rather than move to new land.
- Stamp act, 1765: Act directed that in the American Colonies, the government papers, legal documents, receipts should be written or printed on Stamp Paper. The tax which was collected from this stamp was to be used for the expenditure of the Standing Army in America. led to uproar in America. cries of “no taxation without representation”. led to repeal of Stamp act in 1766.
- Declaratory Act 1766 : Parliament/King has all rights to make laws for colonies
- Townshend Act 1767: by Charles Townshend, Chancelloe of Exchequer, imposed duties on essential goods like tea, glass, lead, paper and colour imported into the American colonies. led to large scale tea smuggling causing revenue loss to British crown and finally to Boston tea massacre on 5th March 1770.
- The new PM, Lord North, in 1770 took a conciliatory approach and waived off all duties, acts, taxes except Tea tax (tea Act 1772). This failed to pacify americans. Ships with tea on board turned away at New York, Philadelphia. When the British tried an alternate port, at Boston, led to Boston tea party- dumped 20000 pounds worth of tea.
- Intolerable Act 1774: disallowed political meetings, closed Boston port, arrested conspirators and sought to seek the reparations for the losses incurred.
american revolution: important events leading upto the revolution?
- Grenville policy-> led to Sons of Liberty and Daughters of LIberty
- Rockingham declaration and Townshed plan-> Boston massacre, 1770
- Lord North’s tea policy-> Boston tea party, 1773
american revolution: important events leading upto the revolution: Grenville policy?
To recover losses incurred by Americans in the seven yrs war,
- Tight control policy
- new taxes lke stamp duty, sugar duty
- prohibited crossing and settling west of Applachians by the Americans
American s in response, took up the Englishman’s resolution at the Massachusetts assembly: no taxation without representation and led to founding of organisations like ‘sons of liberty’ and ‘daughters of liberty’ which targetted stamp vendors and burnt down stamps.
american revolution: important events leading upto the revolution: Rockingham declaration and Townshed plan?
British thought stamp duty was the real cause of the trouble.
Rockingham declaration abolished stamp duty and but reinforced their rights to impose taxes and frame laws for the Americans by the Townshed plan.
led to massacre at a mass protest in Boston led by Samuel Adams
american revolution: important events leading upto the revolution: Lord North’s tea policy?
obj of North’s tea policy
- relieve EIC from financial stress by importing their tea sourced from China
- assert the taxing rights of Britain over America while placating Americans
led to boston tea party and the two Philadelphia conventions
american revolution: important events leading upto the revolution: First Philadelphia Convention?
in 1774
aka 1st Continental congress
The representatives of 13 colonies met at Philadelphia (1774) for the first continental congress. Their appeal for removal of restrictions on industries and trade and not imposing taxes without their approval, was rejected by the king and their actions declared as mutiny and British army was sent to America. And the Americaan war of INdependence started in 1775 when colony militia met British forces i Lexington, Massachusetts
american revolution: important events leading upto the revolution: Second Philadelphia Convention?
The congress met again in Second continental congress (1776) and declared independence on July 4.
The declaration, among other things, asserted the inalienable rights of men that had to be protected. It said that all men are created equal, and they are endowed by their creators with certain inalienable rights that include right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness.
it asserted that peopleare the source of authority and affired people’s right to set up their own govt.
Prior to this declaration, they were fighting for their rights as englishmen, but hereafter they fought for their right to be an independent nation.
American war of independence?
started with initial battles in and around Boston.
americans aided and supported by France, Spain and Holland
American won in crucial battles of Lexington and Concorde
war ended in 1781 with surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown.
In 1783, treaty of Paris was signed aand England reconised the independence of America
Role of George Washington in American war of independence?
- led the overall strategy of war in cooperation with Congress
- provided leadership of troops against the main British forces in 1775–1777 and again in 1781.
- he was charged with selecting and guiding the generals.
- he took charge of training the army and providing supplies, from food to gunpowder to tents.
- He was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown, serving as the representative man of the Revolution. His long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal.
- he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won, rather than declaring himself monarch.
American revolution: Third Philadelphia convention?
By 1786, Americans recognized that the Articles of Confederation, the foundation document for the new United States adopted in 1777, had to be substantially modified. The Articles gave Congress virtually no power to regulate domestic affairs–no power to tax, no power to regulate commerce. Without coercive power, Congress had to depend on financial contributions from the states. Congress had neither the money to pay soldiers for their service in the Revolutionary War or to repay foreign loans granted to support the war effort. In 1786, the United States was bankrupt.
3rd Philadelphia convention in 1787
- Birth of American union and USA
- Republic form of govt was adopted with George Washington as President
- Man made constitution as guide for new born America based on principles of humanism, with special features like Bill of Rights, Provision of amendments etc.
- finally adopted in 1789
Significance of AMerican revolution?
- independence for America
- win of masses against classes
- win of nationalists against imperialists
- Establishment of American Federation and formation of the first major republic modern state. Gave the framework of modern demcratic set up to the world.
- first written and democratic constitution of world
- ideas of equality, liberty, rule of law; separation of state and religion
- British King was relegated to a rubber stamp. Prior to this the power to appoint PM was with the king. But the British Parliament snatched this power away post since 1776.
- lessons learnt for Britain
- how colonies are to be governed- Cautious Mercantilism
- 1784 Pitt’s India Act: afraid of similar revolt by EIC in Inida, Pitt’s India Act instituted a Board of Control so as to regulate activities of EIC in India
- 1786-> Lord Cornwallis made Guv-Gen of India
- Domino effect: age of revolutions started
- 1789-> france; Lafayette who aided Americans on behalf of French king later played an important role in French revolution against the French king himself,
- 1798-> ireland
- 1830s-> Latin America
Dichotomies in the American constitutional debates?
- centre vs states (Hamilton vs Jefferson debates)
-
big states vs small states
- virginia plan: rep based on pop or money; bicameral legislature
- new jersey plan: equal rep; unicameral legislature
- finally compromised: “Great compromise”: lower house based on pop and elected directly while upper house would have two senators from each state elected by state legislature
- “3/5 compromise”: pop based seats in lower house wud hv benefitted southern states as they had significant slave population; as a compromise, slaves were counted as 3/5 of a person for both taxes and representation purpose
-
north vs south states
- slavery: north wanted cheap labour based on market mechanisms thus sought abolition of slavery; southern states wanted labor for their farms so sought continuation of slavery
- northern states sought trade barriers to have protection from european goods while southern states wanted free trade policy to export and sell their produce in europe
American civil war: reasons?
- economic disparity : industrial vs agricultural economy
- 23 northern states were economically more developed; had 2000 iles rly; large industries
- states’ rights
- export import rights with centre vs with states
- southern states claimed compact sovereignty: as the parties to a compact, states had the right to judge for themselves whether the terms of the compact were being honored. They described this “right of judging” as “an essential attribute of sovereignty,” which the states retained when the Constitution was formed. They claimed the states had the right to nullify, or veto, any laws that were inconsistent with the compact. When the southern states seceded in 1860-61, they relied on the compact theory to justify secession and argued that the northern states had violated the compact by undermining and attacking the institution of slavery and the slaveholders’ property rights.
- slavery:
- moral question
- economic aspect
- tariff policy: protective vs free trade policy
- election of Abraham Lincoln
- he won election on the forum of abolishment of slavery
- before his election, Carolina secedes from thr union
- 7states form the Confederation states of America. Later 4 more joined.
American Civil War: causes: slavery?
- issue reached the peak when Ameica bought state of Louisiana from France in 1803 and question arose over whether it will be free state or slave state
- The recurrent question of the ‘free vs slave’ status of new states was decided with Missouri agreement in 1820. The 36deg 33min N line was decided as the line of demarcation between free states and slave states. Thus Louisiana became slave state while Maine became free state
- The movement to free slaves gained momentum in 1830s to 1850s. eg.
- Liberator published by William Lloyd Garrison;
- formation of ‘anti Slavery society’ in northern states;
- rise of Abolitionists
- Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe portraying the inhumane aspects of slavery. This book was banned by the southern states
- This created an atmosphere of distrust and apprehension among the southern states
- Kansas-Nebraska Act 1854: both the states lied north of 36deg line, the act said that slavery question can be determined popular sovereignty irrespective of position wrt line. This demand was led by Democrat Senator Douglas
- The anti-slavery movement of north reacted by forming the Republican party led by Abraham Lincoln.
- Additionally James Brown sought to turn this anti-slavery movement into a military movement by giving the slaves weapons so that they can free themselves.
- Dread Scott case 1856-57: USA-SC ruled that slaves were so inferior that they had no rights which the white men was bound to respect. SC allowed slavery in northern states by declaring slavery as a legal institution and slaves as devoid of rights. This triggered Kansas and Nebraska to turn into a slave state
- In this backdrop was contested the presidential election between Democrat Stephen Douglas and Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1860. latter won without winning any southern states.
- This prompted South Carolina to secede frm the union before Lincoln’s swearing in. By Feb, 6 more states secede and together the 7 form the confederate states of America with their new constitution which abolishe protective trade policy and allowed slavery. 4 more join soon. Thus 11 states secede to form Confederate states while 34 remain as United states.
- 12th april 1861: South states attack northern states at Fort Sumter off the coast of Charleston in South Carolina and Civil war began.
role of Lincoln in American civil war?
- turned the issue from slavery to survival of the American union and thus appealing to the emotions and patriotism of his people
- recruited volunteers to propagate the cause of American union. he called for 75000 volunteers in the initial stages of the war nd later 42000 more. This created a personal stake of the people in the war. These volunteers also contributed in creating confusion among the southern states.
- Lincoln passed the 13th amendment (1864) that abolished slavery across America, thus getting moral and literal support of the slaves
- contributed as an inspirational leader. Famous address of Gettysberg, conquest of Orleans
American Civil war: significance?
- stronger system in America
- administrative reforms
- the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments gave essential civil and political rights to the black people in America
- human and economic loss to USA: 7L died and 100mn $ was lost
- cooperation among N and S states increased
- led to second phase of industrializatoin and progress of America towards the modern Capitalism
- was the 1st war to use modern strategy and equipments like armoured ships. report of war in daily news was a new feature as well.
black voting rights post civil war?
- 14th amendment granted African Americans the rights of citizenship. However, this did not always translate into the ability to vote. Black voters were systematically turned away from state polling places.
- Thus Congress passed 15th amendment giving them right to vote explicitly
- Yet states still found ways to circumvent the Constitution and prevent blacks from voting. Poll taxes, literacy tests, fraud and intimidation all turned African Americans away from the polls.
- Until the Supreme Court struck it down in 1915, many states used the “grandfather clause “ to keep descendents of slaves out of elections. The clause said you could not vote unless your grandfather had voted – an impossibility for most people whose ancestors were slaves.
- The fight for African American suffrage raged on for decades.
- In 1963 and 1964, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. brought hundreds of black people to the courthouse in Selma, Alabama to register. When they were turned away, Dr. King organized and led protests that finally turned the tide of American political opinion. In 1964 the Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibited the use of poll taxes. In 1965, the Voting Rights Act directed the Attorney General to enforce the right to vote for African Americans.
French revolution: phases?
FR is not an event of history but a living legend and a process
- Bourgeoisie phase 1789-1791: abolition of monarchy
- 1791-93: National Convetion in power
- 1793-1798: radical phase: Jacobians and rise of napolean
- 1795: Napolean comes to power
- 1799-1815: Age of Napolean
1830: July revolution
1848: february revolution
1871: establishment of French Republic
French revolution: causes: political?
- Bourbon dynasty enjoyed absolute monarchy in france
- King claimed divine rights
- Louis XIV and Louis XV were powerful kings centralising a lot of power. abandoned the representative institutions like Estates general
- rampant corruption
- no codified uniform legal system or uniform taxation policy
- Louis XVI came to power in 1774
- weak personality
- dependent on feudal elements for consolidation of rule leading to monopolizatio of all institutions by fedudal lords and aristocrats
- French common man had no political representation
- the first two estates with combined pop of ~600000 had nearly the same representation in estates generals session as the the third estate with pop of 25mn.
French revolution: causes: social?
French society was divided into 3 estates
- the clergy
- scorned at enlightenment ideas
- <1% of pop but controlled 15% of resources
- didn’t paid taxes
- used to run schools and public functions and got grants from the king
- received compulsory tax from others called tithe. It was 1/10th of total agri produce
- gentry classs: aristocrats and feudal lords
- held highest offices in the govt; esp cornered power during Louis XVI’s reign
- disagreed abt enlightenment ideas
- owned 20% of resources despite constituting just 2% of pop
- paid almost no taxes
- common class:
- 97% of people
- was not homogenous: consisted of three grps
- bourgeoisie or middle class:
- very well educated and believed strongly in enlightenment ideas and sought change
- paid high taxes
- lacked privileges
- felt that their wealth entitled them to a greater social status and political power
- workers of cities:
- included tradespeople, apprentices, laborers and domestic servants
- were paid low wages
- paid high taxes
- politically, socially and economically deprived and were aware of this deprivation
- peasants:
- 80% of pop
- paid >50% of income in dues to nobles, tithes to church and taxes to king
- resented the clergy and nobles
French revolution: causes: cultural?
18th century- age of reason
- Montesquieu
- Voltaire
- Rousseau
- American revolution: Gen Lafayette
- John Locke: an English thinker, his Two Treatises of Govt, refuted the doctrine of divine and absolute right of monarch
French revolution: causes: cultural: Montesquieu?
- exposed privilege based social system and the rampant corruption in royal court
- In his book Spirit of Laws he openly attacked the absolute monarchy of France
- He advocated constitutional monarchy that would serve the interests of the French people.
- He vouched for separation of powers into three independent organs – legislature, judicial and executive.
- His criticism of the existing laws and institutions destroyed the prestige in which these institutions.
French revolution: causes: cultural: Voltaire?
- His imprisonment by the government converted him into a social thinker and critic.
- He highlighted the tyranny, cruelty and absurdities prevailing in France.
- He wrote a famous critical history named The Age of Louis XIV and also wrote numerous essays, tales and satires.
- He attacked the decadent customs and notions prevalent in the society.
- his main target was the Catholic Church. He criticized the French Church as privileged nuisance, monument of bigotry and den of superstitions. He said that the church held human thoughts in perpetual bondage. He gave a battle cry to destroy it
French revolution: causes: cultural: Rousseau?
- The French rationalist philosophy swung to a radical channel with the advent of Jean Jacques Rousseau.
- He scorned the dry rationalism of the philosophers and pointed that right feelings are important along with right thinking.
- In his essay- what is the origin of inequality among men, Rousseau showed how vanity and greed had corrupted men. He believed men were born good but were corrupted by society
- In his book- Social Contract, he investigated the origin of state and government. He adopted Lock’s main proposition of state of nature, the idea of contract and the sovereignty of the people. He declared that Government, Law and State were the outcome of a contract with people.
- The collective will of the people called the general will was the sovereign power. The king remained on the throne under the obligation to obey the contract. If the king failed in his duty, the contract was broken and the general could depose him will. The people had a right to revolt against a bad government.
French revolution: causes: economic?
- French population grew from 18 million in 1700 to 26 million in 1789, making it the most populous state in Europe; Paris had over 600,000 inhabitants, of whom roughly one third were either unemployed or had no regular work
- war and defence expenses: 75% expense was on defence
- French army sent to America to fight against British
- led to growing govt debt
- Lavish lifestyle of King and nobles
- flawed taxation policy:
- those who owned the majority of resources were exempted from taxation
- no uniform tax policy
- attempt to tax the nobles
- Tax burden on the third estate: the main taxpayers were living in abject poverty.
- high inflation (~65%). frequent bread riots
French revolution: causes: immediate causes?
- Louis XVI comes to power: weak ruler and real power appropriated by aristocrats
- France on verge of bankruptcy
- France was facing severe agricultural crisis in 1787 leading to high inflation and bread riots. By the spring of 1789, a poor harvest followed by a severe winter had created a rural peasantry with nothing to sell, and an urban proletariat whose purchasing power had collapsed.
- Jacques Necker, the new FM, was removed when he advised to cut the royal expenditure on pensions for aristocrats. This angered the common masses
- Marie Antoinette: Her callous respose and vulgar show of wealth in face of starving people incensed the fire of anger of masses. viewed as a spendthrift Austrian spy, and blamed for the dismissal of ‘progressive’ ministers like Jacques Necker.
French revolution: Abolition of Ancien Regime?
- Louis XVI’s efforts to impose new taxes on the first two estates were thwarted by the interventions by special council, Parlement. They even provoked him to invoke session of estates general, that was earlier abolished by Louis XIV and was not called since 1614. This assembled the bourgeoisie class from all over the country and they demanded a joint session (not allowed). The king refused this demand. In respnose the third estate representatives, under Abbe Sieyes amd Mirabeau, met in a Tennis Court on 16th June 1789 and declared themselves as National Assembly of France. They took the oath to meet until France had a constitution.
- Finally the emperor recognises the National assembly on 27th June 1789.
- The national assembly was recognised as the constituent assembly on 9th July 1789
- Storming of Fort Bastille
- Assembly published August Decrees
- Feudalism and Serfdom was abolished.
- End of privilege system and Tithe.
- state controlof catholic church; freedom of worship
- extending the right to vote
- equality before law
French revolution: storming of Fort Bastille?
causes:
- continuing agricultural and economic crisis that saw bread riots
- removal of Jacques Necker
- callous attitude of royal family and marie Antoinette’s infamous remarks
people in Paris, on 14th July 1789, broke into Bastille, a political prison and July 14 became bastille day, the French independence day
French revolution: declaration of rights of man and the citizen?
- on 26th aug 1789. as part of August decrees
- Assisted by Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette prepared a draft constitution known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which echoed some of the provisions of the Declaration of Independence.
- the two differed in intent; Jefferson saw the US Constitution and Bill of Rights as fixing the political system at a specific point in time, claiming they ‘contained no original thought…but expressed the American mind’ at that stage. The 1791 French Constitution was viewed as a starting point, the Declaration providing an aspirational vision, a key difference between the two Revolutions.
- This declaration is called the ‘death certificate of the old system in France’
- It guaranteed 6 rights:
- men are born and remain equal before law
- freedom of speech, press and religion
- right to take part in govt
- right to hold public office
- right to a fair trial
- Right to property: property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless
a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance
- It also established sovereignty: source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
- For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is
indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.
French revolution: France becomes Constitutional monarchy? impact?
in 1791 (accepted by King in Sept 1791)
impacts:
- King lost the power of legislation. But he still had suspensive veto
- Legislative assembly was formed (elected by the active citizens. Active citizens (as opposed to passive citizens) were the men above the age of 25 years who paid regular taxes) and a govt based on- separation of power, rule of law and popular sovereignty was established
- attack by 1st European coalition (1792-1797), a coalition of european monarchies (Spain, Holland, Austria, Prussia, England, Sardinia) to defeat the French republic, on the invitation of the French emperor. The French people came together under nationalist sentiments and defeated the coalition. In the aftermath, emperor and his wife were guillotined after the storming of Tuileries Palace in August 1792
- With the death of the King, the constitutional monarchy was replaced by National convention system
- The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
French revolution: National convention?
- following the two-year National Constituent Assembly and the one-year Legislative Assembly, the new parliament of France was called National Convention (1792-1795)
- after death of Louis XVI, the constitution of 1791 was set aside and the national convention was established in Sept 1792 (First French Republic). it was the first French government organized as a republic, abandoning the monarchy altogether.
- 749 members (from France and a few other countries) were chosen by French men older than 25 yrs age (Thus this was the first French assembly elected by a suffrage without distinctions of class.)
- The national convention was the new govt and it declared France a Republic
- women were not given the right to vote
- Although the Convention lasted until 1795, power was effectively stripped from the elected deputies and concentrated in the small Committee of Public Safety from April 1793. The people in charge in this govt were part of the radical grp- the Jacobins
French revolution: Frech revolutionary wars?
They were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Russia, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802).
French revolution: The politics of National convention?
1792-1795
- two groups emerged: Montagnards and Girondists
- Montagnards;
- power based in Paris, saw Paris as centre of revolution
- sought centralization of power
- adopted extreme measures to achieve their goals
- Girondists
- power based in provinces
- supported federalism
In June, an uprising in Paris replaced the Girondins who dominated the National Assembly with the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Maximilien Robespierre.
French revolution: Reign of terror?
- National convention created a 12 member committee of Public safety, led by Robespierre
- The eight months from the fall of 1793 to the spring of 1794, when Maximilien Robespierre and his allies dominated the Committee of Public Safety, represent the most radical and bloodiest phase of the French Revolution, known as the Reign of Terror.
- Robespierre used terror against ‘enemies’ of France using ‘prompt, severe, inflexible justice’
- 3L were arrested and 17000 were guillotined
- Finally National convention turns on CPS.
- The reign of terror ended in Oct 1795. Robespierre was himself guillotined by the French people
- After the fall of Robespierre, the Convention lasted for another year until a new constitution was written, ushering in the French Directory.
French revolution: the Directory?
1795-1798
The national convention was replaced by the Directory.
The Directory was the governing five-member committee in the French First Republic from 2 November 1795 until 9 November 1799, when it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte and replaced by the consulate
another constitution was adopted in 1795 (this was third constitution since start of FR)
- supported mainly by wealthy bourgeoisie
- restricted to politically active class
- universal male (>21 yrs age) suffrage selected electors
- electors were usually wealthy
- electors chose deptt officials and members of Legislative assembly
- The legislative assembly chose the directory (5 directors) (executive)
Note that the voting power was again snatched away from the poorest and given to the wealthier section of the society
The Directory was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one man executive as under the Jacobians
The directory was weak amidst the chaos of frequent foreign invaions, supporters of monarchy wanting to restore the Borbons while radical revolutionaries wanting to regain control. IN response Napoleon Bonaparte organised a military coup and established a new form of govt called consulate
French revolutoin as a class struggle?
- initial: France ruled by the two estates
- the National assembly rule: rule by Bourgeoisie
- rule of Jacobians: rule of the common man
- directory: wealthier middle class reseized power
French revolution: Napoleon seizing power?
- 1799: Napoleon, banking on his popularity, threat of foreign invasions and weak directory rule, seized power.
- He dissolved the directory and established 3 consuls. Ultimate executive authority was vested in three consuls, who were elected for ten years.
- Gradually, Napoleon became the first consul and assumed the powers of a dictator
- background: After Habsburg-controlled Austria declared war on France on 12 March 1799, emergency measures were adopted and the pro-war Jacobin faction triumphed in the elections. But with time as the prospect of invasion receded, jacobians feared a revival of the pro-peace Royalist faction. When Napoleon returned from frontlines, both factions hailed him as the country’s savior. Napoleon gained power for himself during the coup of 18 Brumaire and a new Constitution was adopted.
- SOme historians marks this as the end of French revolution
Impact/Significance of French revolution: in France?
- end of monarchy: establishment of a republican govt
- establishment of a constitutional govt: no divine rights
- France became torch-bearer of humanity and ideals like liberty, equality and fraternity esp the importance of declaration of rights of men
- end of privilege based social system
- end of feudalism and serfdom and improvement in their living conditions
- strengthening of middle class (bourgeoisie)
- church power reduced; nationalisation of church
- granted religious freedom
- administartive and judicial changes: eg. reorganization of France into 83 deptts (provinces), thus promoted decentralization; codification of laws (under Napoleon); equality before law
- Tax collection reformed: Tethes abolished
- Rise of nationalism, esp in wake of attack by othe European powers
Impact/Significance of French revolution: Europe?
England:
- initially welcomed the change in France but as the chaos spread, they tried to suppress it (philosophy of Edmund Burke). PM Pitt banned the press and organizations.
- supporting anti-rev activities in France by England led to economic crisis in england
- start of social and political reforms in england
- encouraged revolutionary activities in Ireland in 1798
Europe:
- increased revolutionary aactivity in Poland (against russian control)
- led the monarchial rulers of Europe to come together and attack France and led to anti-revolutionary wars. Finally led to Vienna order in 1815
Impact/Significance of French revolution: world?
- strength of nationalism
- impetus to nation-state system=> sequence of events led to unification of Italy and Germany
- gave the ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity and the ideas of human rights
Role of women in French revolution?
- Background:
- Most women of the third estate had to work for a living. Working women had also to care for their families
- Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only daughters of nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could study at a convent, after which their families arranged a marriage for them.
- to discuss and voice their interests women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them. They demanded equal right as men. eg. Declaration of rights of Woman and Citizen, wrote by Olympe de Gouges in 1791
- Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens
- In the early years, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of women.
- Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
- Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will. Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law.
- Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men.
- Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses
- During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were arrested and a number of them executed
- Women’s movements for voting rights and equal wages continued through the next two hundred years. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.
French Revolution: abolition of slavery?
- Background: slave trade began in 17th cent. French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains, transported them via ships to colonies in Carribean- Martnique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo and sold to plantation owners. Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes owed their economic prosperity to the flourishing slave trade
- Throughout the eighteenth century there was little criticism of slavery in France.
- The National Assembly held long debates about whether the rights of man should be extended to all French subjects including those in the colonies. But it did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose incomes depended on the slave trade.
- It was finally the Convention which in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions.
- This, however, turned out to be a short-term measure: ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery.
- Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848
Napoleon Bonaparte: history?
- entered French army at age 16 as second-lieutenent. Soon disillusioned with the elitist French society that stpped him from progressing due to his humble origins.
- He began fighting for the revolution and helped defeat counter revolutions (siege of toulon). With his success, he grew in stature and ranking quickly.
- War of the first coalition (1792-1797): Napoleon led French army at the famous battle of Lodi (1796) and defeated the Austrians (who controlled the northern Italy); he swept through the northern Italy and the French army was welcomed with jubilation by the Italian people. With Napoleon overseeing the negotiations himself, Austrians were forced to make peace. The Treaty of Campo Formio signed between France and Austria led to territorial gains for France. In the conquered Italian territories, he established new sister Republics like Liguarian republic (1797). Here he tasted the governance as he wrote the constitutions and organized govts.
- he was welcomed as a hero when he got back to France. Soon after he was sent to win Egypt, a British protectorate, to cut off the British trade line to India. However he tasted defeat in this endeavour. However, he was once again hailed as a hero, showing his prowess as a propagandist
- helped in the coup of Brumaire in nov 1799 and established himself as the first consul. Soon he centralized all the power with himself and declared hiself First consul for life under the new constitution of 1802. Finally in 1804, he was given the title of ‘Emperor of France’.
- After wins in Napoleonic wars, he was defeated in Battle of Liepzig (1813) in the sixth coalition war. This battle is also called the battle of the nations as the french forces battled against the Austrians, Swedes, Prussians and Russians on four sides simultaneously. Later Paris fell. Napoleon abdicated his throne and Borbon dynasty was restored with Louis VIII (Louis VI’s brother) as emperor.
- Napoleon was exiled to elba (in Mediterranean sea) and was named as Emperor of Elba. But Napoleon tried again to regain his past glory. The French people were also not happy with the Borbon rule and the renewal of past privilege system. So many were happy to see him back. The troops sent to fight him instead joined his campaign. And he once again became the emperor. The European powers declared him an illegitimate ruler and declared war aaginst him. led to HUndred Days’ War (1815). Finally defeated at Battle of Waterloo. He was exiled to St. Helena in southern Atlantic Ocean.
The Napoleonic wars- The European coalition wars?
- War against the first coalition (1792-97): the neighbouring monarchies , threatened by the French revolution and finally triggered by France declaring war on Austria. The main members were Austria, Prussia, Britain,Spain and Napal states. As France gained new territories, it established sister republics eg. Batavian republic in present day Belgium. Napoleon led the southern flank and won crucial victories in northern Italy and finally forcing Austria to sue for peace.
- War against the second coalition (1799-1802): against Britain, Austria and Russia. After initially being on backfoot, France bounced back under the new leader-Napoleon. crossing of Alps and the famous battle of Battle of Marengo. Austrians again sued for peace- Treaty of Luneville (1801)
- War against the third coalition (1803-1806): Austria, Russia, Sweden and Naples formed the third coalition against France. But they met with total humiliation at the hands of Napoleon. Battle of Ulm saw the defeat of Austrians and Battle of Austerlitz saw the defeat of Russia. Naples was conquered in 1806. Austria was forced to sue for Peace (treaty of pressburg, 1805). But the remaining continued.
- War against the Fourth coalition (1806-1807): Prussia joined the war. But they clashed with French forces by themselves and faced heavy defeat at the twin battles of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806. French army pursued the retreating prussians and took Berlin. Prussia lost a large part of its territories.
- War aginst the Fifth coalition (1809): seeing France as occupied in Spain, Austria retried its hand. Though they were defeated in just 4 months but these battles were far more equal and bloodier than ever before.
- War against the sixth coalition (1813-1814): after French defeat in russia, European forces smelled blood and attacked. Prussia, Russia and Sweden came together. Austria declared neutrality but joined the coalition later. Napoleon was finally defeated at the bigest and bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic wars - Battle of Liepzig (1813).
- War of Seventh coalition: the allied powers declared war aginst Napoleon (declaring him as an illegitimate ruler of france). led to Hundred Days’ war. (1815). Finally defeated at Battle of Waterloo.
Traits that made napoleon a great military leader?
- commanded loyalty: soldiers perceived him as one of themselves. Early in his career he actively participated in the battles eg. battle of Lodi (1796)
- The military manoeuvre genius: employed surprise in his attack strategies. eg. Siege of Genoa (1800) against the Austrians, wherein he along with his army moved quickly to cross the Alps and finally the famous battle of Marengo (1800).
- Speed: favoured quick decisive battles
- military corps system: organised his army into corps with each with their own infantry, cavalry and artillery, thus moved more independently, lived off the local land and thus didn’t depend on supply train
- dividing the enemy troops: employed in various battles eg. in third coalition of Europe war, prevented Austrian and Russian troops to join hands and moved rapidly to defeat austrian troops before the russians arrived. This forced Russia to retreat
- Duping the enemy: He didn’t shy away from being portrayed as vulnerable. eg. in the war aginst the third coalition, when Russia retreated, he followed them but soon shot off a conciliatory letter to Czar implying that he is vulnerable. Russians fell for this and instead of continuing retreating and dragging out the war which would hv been productive against the quick-decisive battle style of France, they attacked French troops in the Battle of Austerlitz (Dec, 1805) and lost the war.
- Innovative artillery tactics: eg. pinning opponent army against a river and then just pushing them. eg. when Russians tried to retreat from the battle of Austerlitz, French artillery fired on the frozen ice of the river they were crossing and most of the Russian soldiers drowned
Napoleon bonaparte: reforms: administrative?
- established strong and stable French state
- centralized admin
- established central secratariat- bureaucratic reforms
- introduced restrictions on liberty for maintaining law and order
- press censorship
- introduced merit based admin appointments
Napoleon Bonaparte: reforms: educational?
- recognised education as a tool to morph people’s thoughts- used education to inculcate devotion towards state and Napoleon among the young minds
- he said that states must control education
- national assembly had already snatched away right to educate from religion, formed National education Council and French was declared as official language. Napoleon introduced the three tiered educatoin system- primary, secondary and higher education
- written syllabus
- established military school
- set up French university system
- He left some primary education in the hands of religious orders, but he offered public support to secondary education. Napoleon founded a number of state secondary schools designed to produce a standardized education that was uniform across France
- Unlike the system during the Ancien Régime, religious topics did not dominate the curriculum. Study of sciences and modern and classical languages was also included. Thus established secular eduaction
- He introduced the metric system and fostered the study of engineering.
Napoleon bonaparte: reforms: Judicial?
- Napoleon started codification of laws in the form of civil code, code of Criminal procedure, commercial code etc.
- stress on clearly written and accessible law for the whole of France
- aimed to reform French legal code to reflect the principles of French revolution- rule of law and equality
- The Napoleonic code was adopted throughout much of Continental Europe, though only in the lands he conquered, and remained in force after Napoleon’s defeat.
- The code spurred the development of bourgeois society in many european countries by the extension of the right to own property and an acceleration towards the end of feudalism.
- legalized divorce
Napoleon bonaparte: reforms: economic?
- Nationalisation:
- established bank of France to regulate currency system in France
- The first steps in establishing a public banking system
- he introduced the franc de germinal which became the basis of his monetary system
- This reform gave France the most stable currency in Europe at that time. It would remain the basis of France’s currency for the next 120 years.
- Much clearer divisions of roles between the ministry of finances and the treasury
- promoted free trade: including in French occupied territories in Italy, germany
- uniform tax policy
- constructed infra- roads and bridges; canals for irrigation
- Napoleon directly overthrew remnants of feudalism in much of western Continental Europe. He liberalized property laws, ended seigneurial dues (manor system of owning land and labor), abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship
- re-introduced slavery
- The continental blockade against Britain allowed France to sell their goods at higher price, esp in northern Europe
- sold Louisiana to USA, sold other lands owned by Catholic Church to fund his wars
- However the constant war footing of France and her economy didn’t allow the rise of innovation and entrepreneurship trends that led to IR in Britain.
Napoleon bonaparte: reforms: religion and culture?
- adopted secular policy- freedom to follow any religion
- Initially at odds with Pope Pius VI. He invaded Italy, defeated papal troops, forced Pope to give up his temporal powers and declare Rome a republic and even arrested him when he refused.
- Napoleon realized the importance of religion as a means to increase obedience and his power and control over the French. He sought to use religion as a way to keep the poor people placated
- later entered into agreement with Pope- Concordant of 1801, that
- gave control of the clergy back to the Pope
- Catholic Church gave up its claaims to land that was confiscated after 1790.
- It solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France and brought back most of its civil status
- Napoleon emancipated Jews, as well as Protestants in Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countries, from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he expanded their rights to property, worship, and careers.
Culture
- created ‘Legion of Honor’, still the highest award in France
- led many palaces’ constructions
Napoleon: dissolution of Holy roman Empire?
- Holy roman Empire was not a papal state. It was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in Western, Central and Southern Europe that developed in the beginning of 9th cent CE by the agreement betn the Pope and the German emperor Charlamagne. The Church annointed the emperor as holy roman emperor, regarded as first among equals among other Roman Catholic monarchs across Europe. In 14th century this post became an elected post with the occupant decided by voting by electors who basically were the head of state of the constituent principalities. For about 4 centuries, The Austrian emperor of the Habsburg empire owned the title of HRE by bribing the electors.
- After the treaty of Luneville, the German territories on the west bank of the Rhine were annexed to France. The treaty provided for the German rulers who lost territory west of the Rhine to be compensated elsewhere in the empire at the expense of the smaller states. This caused a redrawal of the map of germany wherein bigger states swallowed the smaller states. Both Austria and Prussia acquired some extra territory in the reorganization of 1803, but Napoleon made sure that the main gains went to states like Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, which were not big enough to pose any threat to France.
- After the defeat of Austria in the third battle of European coalition in 1805, Napoleon went on to organize the Confederation of the Rhine under his protection and in military alliance with France. Sixteen German states joined the Confederation, which stretched from the Elbe to the Alps. It was a French vassal state and Napoleon announced that the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation no longer existed.
- The abdication in August 1806, combined with a dissolution of the entire imperial hierarchy and its institutions, was seen as necessary to prevent the possibility of Napoleon proclaiming himself as Holy Roman Emperor, something which would have reduced Francis II to Napoleon’s vassal.
Napoleon and Britain?
Britain, as part of the first coalition, and France went at war in 1793,which Napoleon ended with the ‘Treaty of Amiens’ in 1802. This started an uneasy peace.
But this didn’t last long and Britain re-declared war on france in 1804, as both sides had been violating the treaty.
Napoleon sold Louisiana to USA to fund his invasion plans against Britain. But the mastery of the British navy in the sea menat that there were very few direct battles between the French and the British. British instead funded others in their wars against the French.
allied with Spain to face British, but British victory at Battle of Trafalgar (1805), under British admiral Nelson, settled the question of British supremacy in the sea for ever.
CONTINENTAL SYSTEM (1806)
- the blockade (Berlin decree) designed by Napoleon to paralyze Great Britain through the destruction of British commerce. neutrals and French allies were not to trade with the British.
- hurt English industries and helped spur the Luddite protest movement against unemployment in England. But no major effect as Britain increased her trade with non-european countries and her colonies. Share of Europe in her trade decreased from 55% to 25%. In India, led to Charter Act of 1813
- Although it stimulated manufacturing in some parts of France, the system damaged regions dependent on overseas commerce.
- The loss of Britain as a trading partner also hit the economies of France and its allies.
- Because the British had an overwhelming superiority at sea, though, enforcing the system proved disastrous for Napoleon. The failure to comply was the reason for Napoleon invading Spain and Russia, both of which led to his downfall.
- Portugal openly refused to join the Continental System. In 1793, Portugal signed a treaty of mutual assistance with Britain. This led to Frech invasion of Portugal (1807)
napoleon and Germany?
- German-speaking Central Europe included more than 300 political entities, most of which were part of the Holy Roman Empire or the extensive Habsburg hereditary dominions.
- Although the people were Germanic, they had little sense of national identity.
- Napoleon reorganised Germany into 39 larger states. After the treaty of Luneville, the German territories on the west bank of the Rhine were annexed to France. The treaty provided for the German rulers who lost territory west of the Rhine to be compensated elsewhere in the empire at the expense of the smaller states. This caused a redrawal of the map of germany wherein bigger states swallowed the smaller states. Both Austria and Prussia acquired some extra territory in the reorganization of 1803, but Napoleon made sure that the main gains went to states like Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, which were not big enough to pose any threat to France.
- IN 1806, after defeating Prussia, via the treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon presided over the creation of Confederation of Rhine, that absorbed petty states and was a confederation of 36 states in 1808.
- This created a French ally between directly annexed French territory (west of Nile) and Austri-Prussia region.
- This also led to dissolution of Holy roman empire.
- This also meant that nearly all of the German territory was now under a unified French influence. The experience of German-speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands.
Napoleon and Italy?
- In 1796, the French Army of Italy under Napoleon invaded Italy with the aims of forcing the First Coalition to abandon Sardinia and forcing Austria to withdraw from Italy.
- napoleon entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator.
- Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution by 1799. He consolidated old units and split up Austria’s holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. The new republics were satellite states of Napoleon’s France, some of them joined with France by personal union under Napoleon’s authority. As all of these republics were imposed by an outside force, none had popular support in Italy.
- When he became Emperor of France, he also styled himself as King of Italy. This happened with not much opposition: first because he emphasized his Italian orgins; and second because he was the man who had brought the revolution to the peninsula.
- the peninsula was still divided in three areas: a part of it was directly part of French empire, another part in the North was the proper Kingdom and had its capital in Milan, and the south was ruled by Napoleon’s general Murat. Most of the laws were the same however, in particular the Code Napoleon was basically used in all of Italy.
Napoleon and Spain?
- fought against France in the first coalition war.
- In 1804, allied with France against the British. Napoleon hoped the combined Spanish-french fleet could take on the British. But this dream was shattered in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805). Spain suffered massive loss.
-
Spanish Ulcer
- French forces who were already in Spain for the invasion of Portugal, conquered Spain. Causes:
- Spain’s lacklustre implementation of blockade against Britain
- the defeat of Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar menat the objective of defeating Britain was no more there, plus her own navy was decimated and so Spain was no more inteersted in this alliance
- the proclamation by Godoy, the main man in the Spanish administartion, against France at the start of the fourth coalition war. Manuel Godoy did not support Napoleon.
- The coup of Ferdinand VII against his father, Charles IV gave an excuse to Napoleon to interfere.
- Napoleon mstakenly thought that since the Spnaish royal family is unpopular among her people, he will liberate the people and he will be hailed as a hero.
- He declared his brother Joseph as King of Spain.
- The spanish people revolted.
- didn’t like being ruled by a foreign power
- didn’t approve of Napoleon’s poor treatment of the Pope earlier in his career.
- the suppression of initial revolt in Madrid further fuelled the resistance and created martyrs
- employed gureilla tactics in the Spanish countryside. Napoleon excelled at traditional warfare but this proved difficult for him
- The war that followed resulted in a stalemate, but it had a heavy cost for the French because they were forced to keep a large amount of troops and resources in Spain which were greatly needed on the other fronts across central Europe
- The Spanish Guerrillas along with the British troops who had successfully liberated Portugal kept the French pinned down in Spain for years. Spain was an open wound that refused to go away and so it was called “the Spanish ulcer”.
- French forces who were already in Spain for the invasion of Portugal, conquered Spain. Causes:
Napoleon and Austria?
- was defeated in the first and second war on European coalition
- After defeat in the third coaliton war, Treaty of Pressburg (1805) forced Austria to give up territory, pay huge war indemnity and promised never to fight against France again.
- Holy roman Empire was dissolved by the Austrian Emperor Francis II in 1806
- As Napoleon was caught up in Spain, Austria attacked again in the fifth coalition war. They lost and lost some more territory. Napoleon married Francis’ daughter and allied with France.
Napoleon and Russia?
- was defeated in the war of second coalition
- Third coalition war- battle of Austerlitz
- Fourth coalition war- battle of Friedland. russia was forced to sue for peace. led to Treaties of Tilsit (1807). Russia lost barely any territory, and instead joined France against Britain and invade Sweden.
- The Russian and France alliance didn’t last long. The Russian economy suffered due to British blockade and so they eventually began to open up trade. SoNapoleon decided to invade russia in 1812. He gathered the largest army Europe had ever seen and prepared for the invasion.
- Russia responded by retreating deeper into the territory and followed scorched earth policy. This disrupted French forces living off the local land as well as was opposite to French style of quick-decisive battles.They even let Moscow to fall into napoleon’s hands. Napoleon thought that Russia will now surrender and thus waited for Alexander’s reply to his offer of surrender. But after a month of waiting, winter arrived and it started snowing. As he started to get his troops out of Russian territory, Russians attacked his supply lines, French troops died in huge numbers. Napoleon finally abandoned his men and went back to Paris.
Napoleon and Latin American countries?
Napoleon invading Spain was the spark that ignited the revolution. When he invaded in 1808, he also ousted the Spanish king and put his brother on the throne, which allowed L.A. leaders to see Spain’s weakness, so they declared independence.
The British Navy blocked access to the New World, so ties were cut and authority weakened or absent.
Juntas that propped up all over the continent supposedly did so to defend the colonies from Napoleon’s clutches until the good king Fernando, deposed by Napoleon, could return.
Impact of Napoleon era on India?
- abolition of EIC monopoly by Charter Act of 1813
- 1798, Wellesley, subsidiary alliance
- 1809- Freindship treaty with Ranjit Singh
- Tipu sultan- Jacobian club
Rise of Nation states in Europe: background?
Prior to the 1500s, in Europe, most people did not consider themselves part of a nation; they rarely left their village and knew little of the larger world. They were more likely to identify themselves with their region or local lord. At the same time, the rulers of states frequently had little control over their countries. Instead, local feudal lords had a great deal of power, and kings often had to depend on the goodwill of their subordinates to rule. Laws and practices varied a great deal from one part of the country to another.
The initial monarches accumulated power for themselves. eg. Henry VII wins the War of the Roses in England, begins the Tudor dynasty, and starts the development of the English nation-state in 1485. Spain is united by Ferdinand while Ivan the Terrible rules Russia. After the thirty yrs war (1618-1648), Treaty of Westphalia cements the legal status of the nation-state as sovereign.
Rise of Nation states in Europe: factors responsible?
- Rennaisance: provided fillip to national language, scholars began producing literature in local languages. Prior to this Latin and Greek dominated the Europe. new societies based on local languages started developing. Rennaisance broke the cultural unity of the Europe. Factors of race and ethnicity cropped up.
- Enlightenment, during the Rennaisance, started questioning the authority of religion.Protestants challenged the Catholic church. When Catholic Church stopped Henry VIII of England from Divorcing his wife, he broke from Pope and established an independent Protestant Curch in 1530s. led to Thirty yrs war.
- commercial rivalries amongst merchants: Merchants with the support of their kings, of different countries, greatly contributed to the rise of the nation-state. They also played the role of messenger of international happenings in terms of nation system building.
- Rise of a strong middle class: end of feudalism
- influence of intellectuals: such as Emmanuel Kant, John Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire and many more had spread the ideas of political, social progressive ideals. They educated the common masses
- effects of French revolution and spread of humanist ideas
- military campaigns: eg. Role played by Napoleon Bonaparte in triggering the feeling of affinity, togetherness and linguistic affinity Among masses ultimately resulted in Unification of many nation-states, such as Germany, Italy.
- Development of transport and communication infrastructure
Vienna congress: what?
Following the defeat of Napoleon, the major European powers of the day met in Vienna, austria to establish a plan for peace and resolve other problems that were created by Napoleon. This was called The Congress of Vienna. The major powers in World War II Austria,Prussia, Russia, britain and France.
chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich.
He was of the opinion that the period of the past century of enlightenment and reason led to endless revolutions and wars. Thus, they sought to revert back to the conservative regime of Europe.
Vienna congress: objectives?
With the broader obj of stopping the growth of three isms- Liberalism, nationalism and Republicanism.
- restoring old monarchies
- surround France with strong powers to prevent any repeat of Napoloeon like uprising but at the same time maintain a Balance of power so that no single power becomes too powerful
- spoils for the victors and redrawing of boundaries
Vienna congress outcomes: restoring monarchial order?
- Borbon empire was re-established in france. Louis XVIII, brother of Louis VI, was placed as French emperor.
- Netherlands and Belgium were united under the house of Orange-Nassau
- The King of Sardinia, re-established in Piedmont and Nice
- House of Savoy dynasty regained contrl of Piedmont-Sardinia and their control of their mainland territories- Nice and Genoa were restored. genoa was made a republic by Napoleon.
Vienna congress outcomes: balancing the power interests and spoils for victors?
- To obviate any future revolution from France, France was surrounded by powerful states
- Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized.
- Prussia gained territories like Westphalia and northern Rhineland
- the Dutchy of Warsaw (Poland) was distributed between russia, Austria and Prussia
- However to check Russia’s strength, a strong monarchy was re-established in France
- Britain received sme of France’s territories in the Indian ocean and the Carribean
- Prussia was allocated with 3/5th Saxony
- Austria was given parts of Italian territory like Lombardy-Venetia
- Austrian princes were placed in charge in parma, Modena and Tuscany
- the Dutchy of Warsaw (Poland) was distributed between russia, Austria and Prussia
- German Confederation: The Confederatio of Rhine was dissolved back in 1813. However, Vienna Congress confirmed the 39 membered German Confederation made up of German speaking states, under the leadership of Austrian emperor. Most members of the Confederation of the Rhine located in central and southern Germany survived with minor border changes. They, along with the reinstated states, Prussia, and Austria, formed the German Confederation. it was created as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire
- The Papal States were restored to the Pope.
Achievements of Vienna Congress?
- The first coming together of almost all of Europe. Congress was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties instead of relying mostly on messages among the several capitals.
- brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war.
- initiated a relatively peaceful period of peace in Europe that was broken when Britain and France participated in the Crimean wars.
Drawbacks of Vienna Congress?
- went back to conservatism and romanticism
- Gains made in terms of humanist ideals like liberty, equality and fraternity were reversed
- though members from many small principalities were involved in the congress, the decision making was done by the 5 major powers only
- Though a broader peace was seen for next few decades, inner turmoil occured in many European countries during the revolution of 1830 and 1848
- Except Piedmont-Sardinia, all other places were ruled by foreigners
July revolution?
AKA French revolution of 1830 aka seconf French revolution
causes:
- after Charles X succeded Louis VIII after the latter’s death. He became unpopular because of two of his initiatives- 1) an anti-sacrilege act, which threatened the ideal of equality of religion, and 2) an indemnity law for those whose property was confiscated during the revolution.
- under popular backlash, his govt also introduced proposals for tightening censorship
- Later he dissolved the parliament and delayed the election for two months, sought to exclude commercial middle class from future elections etc.
Imapct/significance:
- end of Bourbon dynasty’s rule in France
- , Louis Philippe of the House of Orléans, who agreed to rule as a constitutional monarch, came to power
- replacement of the principle of hereditary right by that of popular sovereignty.
- stregthening of French middle class
- cascading effect in Europe
- mass revolutions in Europe- Spain, portugal, poland, belgium
- belgium wrested independence from Holland
- rebellion in germany and Italy-suppressed by Metternich
- termed as beginning of end of Vienna system
Frebruary revolution of France?
AKA 1848 revolution
causes:
- Louis Orleans was supported by privileged Financial aristocracy like bankers, mine owners, landowners but not by the industrial section of the bourgeoisie
- influence of a wider wind of socialism in Europe at the time
- only 1% of French pop had right to vote due to property ownership requirements, People demanded reforms to increase voter franchise. King rejected. People took to the streets.
Impact:
- ended the Orleans’ rule in france
- end of Constitutional monarchy in france
- established the French Second republic
- Napoleon III, a kin of Napoleon, was elected President. he later declares himself emperor in 1852.
- strengthening of lower class
- impact in Europe
- nationalist uprisings in Italy, germany, holland and HUngary
- People revolted against Metternich. He had to run away.
- End of Vienna system
- proliferation of socialist ideas.
Unification of Italy: factors at play?
- Role of Napoleon
- Italy before Napoleon
- after Napoleon
- Vienna Congress
- 1830 and 1848 revolutions
- Mazzini
- Garibaldi
- Cavour
- The four stages of Italian unification
Unification of Italy: Italy before Napoleon: constituents?
- south Italy- Naples and Sicily ruled by Bourbon dynasty of France
- central Italy-
- Papal states
- Tuscany- Austrian princes
- North Italy
- Venitia-Lombardy: under influence of Austria
- Parma, Modena- Austrian princes
- Sardinia-Piedmont: ruled by local House of Savoy
Unification of Italy: Italy before Napoleon: features?
- most of them were city states
- smaller states jealous of each other
- foreign domination, except Piedmont-Sardinia
- geographical barriers
- Regional disparity
- no harmony among leaders
- diverse culture
Unification of Italy: Italy after Napoleon: new map 1810?
The Habsburg rule in Italy came to an end with the campaigns of the French Revolutionaries in 1792–97, when a series of client republics were set up.
Under Napoleon, the peninsula was divided into three entities:
the northern parts which were annexed to the French Empire: Piedmont, Liguaria, Parma, Tuscany and Rome
The newly created Italian republic which later became Kingdom of Italy with Napoleon as her king- Lombardy, Venitia, Modena
Kingdom of Naples, which was first ruled by Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte, but then passed to Napoleon’s brother-in-law Joachim Murat.
Unification of Italy: impact of Napoleon invasions?
- end of rule of Habsburg empire and the Holy roman empire
- virtually under the same ruler- a sense of common identity
- Napoleon ended the last vestiges of Feudalism and brought in a new order based on uniform taxation, codified laws, freedom of religion
- inspired by the French egalitarian ideals
- removal of trade barriers (increased interconnectedness) and development of infrastructure (rly lines) and communication led to geographical contiguity and a feeling of nationalism
Unification of Italy: post vienna congress?
most of the Italian states were reconstituted:
- Francis I of Austria also became king of Lombardy-Venetia, which was incorporated into the Habsburg state.
- Savoy dynasty was restored in Piedmont and Nice as well as Genoa
- Austrian princes were again put in charge of Parma, Modena, Tuscany
- Papal states were restored in central Italy
Thus, Vienna settlement dismantled the three aristocratic republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca; it strengthened Piedmont and restored undisputed Austrian hegemony in the peninsula.