world history Flashcards

Question

French revolution: causes: political?

Answer 1

* Bourbon dynasty enjoyed absolute monarchy in france * King claimed divine rights * Louis XIV and Louis XV were powerful kings centralising a lot of power. abandoned the representative institutions like Estates general * rampant corruption * no codified uniform legal system or uniform taxation policy * Louis XVI came to power in 1774 * weak personality * dependent on feudal elements for consolidation of rule leading to monopolizatio of all institutions by fedudal lords and aristocrats * French common man had no political representation * the first two estates with combined pop of ~600000 had nearly the same representation in estates generals session as the the third estate with pop of 25mn.

Answer 2

French society was divided into 3 estates 1. the clergy 1. scorned at enlightenment ideas 2. \<1% of pop but controlled 15% of resources 3. didn't paid taxes 4. used to run schools and public functions and got grants from the king 5. received compulsory tax from others called ***tithe.*** It was 1/10th of total agri produce 2. gentry classs: aristocrats and feudal lords 1. held highest offices in the govt; esp cornered power during Louis XVI's reign 2. disagreed abt enlightenment ideas 3. owned 20% of resources despite constituting just 2% of pop 4. paid almost no taxes 3. common class: 1. 97% of people 2. was not homogenous: consisted of three grps 3. bourgeoisie or middle class: * very well educated and believed strongly in enlightenment ideas and sought change * paid high taxes * lacked privileges * felt that their wealth entitled them to a greater social status and political power 4. workers of cities: * included tradespeople, apprentices, laborers and domestic servants * were paid low wages * paid high taxes * politically, socially and economically deprived and were aware of this deprivation 5. peasants: * 80% of pop * paid \>50% of income in dues to nobles, tithes to church and taxes to king * resented the clergy and nobles

Answer 3

18th century- age of reason 1. Montesquieu 2. Voltaire 3. Rousseau 4. American revolution: Gen Lafayette 5. John Locke: an English thinker, his *Two Treatises of Govt,* refuted the doctrine of divine and absolute right of monarch

Answer 4

* exposed privilege based social system and the rampant corruption in royal court * In his book Spirit of Laws he openly attacked the absolute monarchy of France * He advocated constitutional monarchy that would serve the interests of the French people. * He vouched for separation of powers into three independent organs – legislature, judicial and executive. * His criticism of the existing laws and institutions destroyed the prestige in which these institutions.

Answer 5

* His imprisonment by the government converted him into a social thinker and critic. * He highlighted the tyranny, cruelty and absurdities prevailing in France. * He wrote a famous critical history named **The Age of Louis XIV** and also wrote numerous essays, tales and satires. * He attacked the **decadent customs and notions prevalent** in the society. * his **main target was the Catholic Church**. He criticized the French Church as privileged nuisance, monument of bigotry and den of superstitions. He said that the church held human thoughts in perpetual bondage. He gave a battle cry to destroy it

Answer 6

* The French rationalist philosophy swung to a **radical** channel with the advent of Jean Jacques Rousseau. * He scorned the dry rationalism of the philosophers and pointed that **right feelings are important** along with right thinking. * In his essay- **what is the origin of inequality among men**, Rousseau showed how vanity and greed had corrupted men. He believed **men were born good but were corrupted by society** * In his book- **Social Contract**, he investigated the origin of state and government. He adopted **Lock’s main proposition of state of nature, the idea of contract and the sovereignty of the people**. He declared that Government, Law and State were the outcome of a contract with people. * The collective will of the people called the general will was the sovereign power. The king remained on the throne under the obligation to obey the contract. If the king failed in his duty, the contract was broken and the general could depose him will. **The people had a right to revolt against a bad government.**

Answer 7

1. French population grew from 18 million in 1700 to 26 million in 1789, making it the most populous state in Europe; Paris had over 600,000 inhabitants, of whom roughly one third were either unemployed or had no regular work 2. war and defence expenses: 75% expense was on defence * French army sent to America to fight against British * led to growing govt debt 3. Lavish lifestyle of King and nobles 4. flawed taxation policy: 1. those who owned the majority of resources were exempted from taxation 2. no uniform tax policy 3. attempt to tax the nobles 5. Tax burden on the third estate: the main taxpayers were living in abject poverty. 6. high inflation (~65%). frequent bread riots

Answer 8

1. Louis XVI comes to power: weak ruler and real power appropriated by aristocrats 2. France on verge of bankruptcy 3. France was facing severe agricultural crisis in 1787 leading to high inflation and bread riots. By the spring of 1789, a poor harvest followed by a severe winter had created a rural peasantry with nothing to sell, and an urban proletariat whose purchasing power had collapsed. 4. **Jacques Necker**, the new FM, was removed when he advised to cut the royal expenditure on pensions for aristocrats. This angered the common masses 5. Marie Antoinette: Her callous respose and vulgar show of wealth in face of starving people incensed the fire of anger of masses. viewed as a spendthrift Austrian spy, and blamed for the dismissal of 'progressive' ministers like Jacques Necker.

Answer 9

* Louis XVI's efforts to impose new taxes on the first two estates were thwarted by the interventions by special council, Parlement. They even provoked him to invoke session of estates general, that was earlier abolished by Louis XIV and was not called since 1614. This assembled the bourgeoisie class from all over the country and they demanded a joint session (not allowed). The king refused this demand. In respnose the third estate representatives, under Abbe Sieyes amd Mirabeau, met in a Tennis Court on 16th June 1789 and declared themselves as National Assembly of France. They took the oath to meet until France had a constitution. * Finally the emperor recognises the National assembly on 27th June 1789. * The national assembly was recognised as the constituent assembly on 9th July 1789 * Storming of Fort Bastille * Assembly published **August Decrees****** * Feudalism and Serfdom was abolished. * End of privilege system and Tithe. * state controlof catholic church; freedom of worship * extending the right to vote * equality before law

Answer 10

causes: 1. continuing agricultural and economic crisis that saw bread riots 2. removal of Jacques Necker 3. callous attitude of royal family and marie Antoinette's infamous remarks people in Paris, on 14th July 1789, broke into Bastille, a political prison and July 14 became bastille day, the French independence day

Answer 11

1. on 26th aug 1789. as part of August decrees 2. Assisted by Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette prepared a draft constitution known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which echoed some of the provisions of the Declaration of Independence. * the two differed in intent; Jefferson saw the US Constitution and Bill of Rights as fixing the political system at a specific point in time, claiming they 'contained no original thought...but expressed the American mind' at that stage. The 1791 French Constitution was viewed as a starting point, the Declaration providing an aspirational vision, a key difference between the two Revolutions. 3. This declaration is called the 'death certificate of the old system in France' 4. It guaranteed 6 rights: * men are born and remain equal before law * freedom of speech, press and religion * right to take part in govt * right to hold public office * right to a fair trial * Right to property: property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance 4. It also established sovereignty: source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people. 5. For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.

Answer 12

in 1791 (accepted by King in Sept 1791) impacts: 1. King lost the power of legislation. But he still had suspensive veto 2. Legislative assembly was formed (elected by the active citizens. Active citizens (as opposed to passive citizens) were the men above the age of 25 years who paid regular taxes) and a govt based on- separation of power, rule of law and popular sovereignty was established 3. attack by 1st European coalition (1792-1797), a coalition of european monarchies (Spain, Holland, Austria, Prussia, England, Sardinia) to defeat the French republic, on the invitation of the French emperor. The French people came together under nationalist sentiments and defeated the coalition. In the aftermath, emperor and his wife were guillotined after the **storming of Tuileries Palace in August 1792** 4. With the death of the King, the constitutional monarchy was replaced by **National convention system** 5. **The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen**

Answer 13

1. following the two-year National Constituent Assembly and the one-year Legislative Assembly, the new parliament of France was called **National Convention (1792-1795)** 2. after death of Louis XVI, the constitution of 1791 was set aside and the national convention was established in Sept 1792 (**First French Republic**). it was the first French government organized as a republic, abandoning the monarchy altogether. 3. 749 members (from France and a few other countries) were chosen by French men older than 25 yrs age (**Thus this was the first French assembly elected by a suffrage without distinctions of class.**) 4. The national convention was the new govt and it declared France a Republic 5. women were not given the right to vote 6. Although the Convention lasted until 1795, power was effectively stripped from the elected deputies and concentrated in the small Committee of Public Safety from April 1793. The people in charge in this govt were part of the radical grp- the Jacobins

Answer 14

They were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Russia, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802).

Answer 15

1792-1795 1. two groups emerged: Montagnards and Girondists 2. Montagnards; 1. power based in Paris, saw Paris as centre of revolution 2. sought centralization of power 3. adopted extreme measures to achieve their goals 3. Girondists 1. power based in provinces 2. supported federalism In June, an uprising in Paris replaced the Girondins who dominated the National Assembly with the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Maximilien Robespierre.

Answer 16

* National convention created a 12 member committee of Public safety, led by Robespierre * The eight months from the fall of 1793 to the spring of 1794, when Maximilien Robespierre and his allies dominated the Committee of Public Safety, represent the most radical and bloodiest phase of the French Revolution, known as the Reign of Terror. * Robespierre used terror against 'enemies' of France using 'prompt, severe, inflexible justice' * 3L were arrested and 17000 were guillotined * Finally National convention turns on CPS. * The reign of terror ended in Oct 1795. Robespierre was himself guillotined by the French people * **After the fall of Robespierre, the Convention lasted for another year until a new constitution was written, ushering in the French Directory.**

Answer 17

1795-1798 The national convention was replaced by the Directory. The Directory was the governing five-member committee in the French First Republic from 2 November 1795 until 9 November 1799, when it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte and replaced by the consulate another constitution was adopted in 1795 (this was third constitution since start of FR) 1. supported mainly by wealthy bourgeoisie 2. restricted to politically active class 3. universal male (\>21 yrs age) suffrage selected electors 4. electors were usually wealthy 5. electors chose deptt officials and members of Legislative assembly 6. The legislative assembly chose the directory (5 directors) (executive) **Note that the voting power was again snatched away from the poorest and given to the wealthier section of the society** The Directory was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one man executive as under the Jacobians The directory was weak amidst the chaos of frequent foreign invaions, supporters of monarchy wanting to restore the Borbons while radical revolutionaries wanting to regain control. IN response Napoleon Bonaparte organised a military coup and established a new form of govt called **consulate**

Answer 18

1. initial: France ruled by the two estates 2. the National assembly rule: rule by Bourgeoisie 3. rule of Jacobians: rule of the common man 4. directory: wealthier middle class reseized power

Answer 19

1. 1799: Napoleon, banking on his popularity, threat of foreign invasions and weak directory rule, seized power. 2. He dissolved the directory and established 3 consuls. Ultimate executive authority was vested in three consuls, who were elected for ten years. 3. Gradually, Napoleon became the first consul and assumed the powers of a dictator 4. background: After Habsburg-controlled Austria declared war on France on 12 March 1799, emergency measures were adopted and the pro-war Jacobin faction triumphed in the elections. But with time as the prospect of invasion receded, jacobians feared a revival of the pro-peace Royalist faction. When Napoleon returned from frontlines, both factions hailed him as the country's savior. **Napoleon gained power for himself during the coup of 18 Brumaire and a new Constitution was adopted.** 5. **SOme historians marks this as the end of French revolution**

Answer 20

1. end of monarchy: establishment of a republican govt 2. establishment of a constitutional govt: no divine rights 3. France became torch-bearer of humanity and ideals like liberty, equality and fraternity esp the importance of declaration of rights of men 4. end of privilege based social system 5. end of feudalism and serfdom and improvement in their living conditions 6. strengthening of middle class (bourgeoisie) 7. church power reduced; nationalisation of church 8. granted religious freedom 9. administartive and judicial changes: eg. reorganization of France into 83 deptts (provinces), thus promoted decentralization; codification of laws (under Napoleon); equality before law 10. Tax collection reformed: Tethes abolished 11. Rise of nationalism, esp in wake of attack by othe European powers

Answer 21

England: * initially welcomed the change in France but as the chaos spread, they tried to suppress it (philosophy of Edmund Burke). PM Pitt banned the press and organizations. * supporting anti-rev activities in France by England led to economic crisis in england * start of social and political reforms in england * encouraged revolutionary activities in Ireland in 1798 Europe: * increased revolutionary aactivity in Poland (against russian control) * led the monarchial rulers of Europe to come together and attack France and led to anti-revolutionary wars. Finally led to Vienna order in 1815

Answer 22

* strength of nationalism * impetus to nation-state system=\> sequence of events led to unification of Italy and Germany * gave the ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity and the ideas of human rights

Answer 23

1. Background: * Most women of the third estate had to work for a living. Working women had also to care for their families * Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only daughters of nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could study at a convent, after which their families arranged a marriage for them. 2. to discuss and voice their interests women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them. They demanded equal right as men. eg. *Declaration of rights of Woman and Citizen,* wrote by Olympe de Gouges in 1791 3. Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens 4. In the early years, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of women. * Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls. * Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will. Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law. * Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men. * Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses 5. During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were arrested and a number of them executed 6. Women’s movements for voting rights and equal wages continued through the next two hundred years. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

Answer 24

* Background: slave trade began in 17th cent. French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains, transported them via ships to colonies in Carribean- Martnique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo and sold to plantation owners. Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes owed their economic prosperity to the flourishing slave trade * Throughout the eighteenth century there was little criticism of slavery in France. * The National Assembly held long debates about whether the rights of man should be extended to all French subjects including those in the colonies. But it did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose incomes depended on the slave trade. * It was finally the Convention which in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions. * This, however, turned out to be a short-term measure: ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery. * Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848

Answer 25

1. entered French army at age 16 as second-lieutenent. Soon disillusioned with the elitist French society that stpped him from progressing due to his humble origins. 2. He began fighting for the revolution and helped defeat counter revolutions (siege of toulon). With his success, he grew in stature and ranking quickly. 3. War of the first coalition (1792-1797): Napoleon led French army at the famous battle of Lodi (1796) and defeated the Austrians (who controlled the northern Italy); he swept through the northern Italy and the French army was welcomed with jubilation by the Italian people. With Napoleon overseeing the negotiations himself, Austrians were forced to make peace. The **Treaty of Campo Formio** signed between France and Austria led to territorial gains for France. In the conquered Italian territories, he established new sister Republics like Liguarian republic (1797). Here he tasted the governance as he wrote the constitutions and organized govts. 4. he was welcomed as a hero when he got back to France. Soon after he was sent to win Egypt, a British protectorate, to cut off the British trade line to India. However he tasted defeat in this endeavour. However, he was once again hailed as a hero, showing his prowess as a propagandist 5. helped in the coup of Brumaire in nov 1799 and established himself as the first consul. Soon he centralized all the power with himself and declared hiself First consul for life under the new constitution of 1802. Finally in 1804, he was given the title of 'Emperor of France'. 6. After wins in Napoleonic wars, he was defeated in Battle of Liepzig (1813) in the sixth coalition war. This battle is also called the battle of the nations as the french forces battled against the Austrians, Swedes, Prussians and Russians on four sides simultaneously. Later Paris fell. Napoleon abdicated his throne and Borbon dynasty was restored with Louis VIII (Louis VI's brother) as emperor. 7. Napoleon was exiled to elba (in Mediterranean sea) and was named as Emperor of Elba. But Napoleon tried again to regain his past glory. The French people were also not happy with the Borbon rule and the renewal of past privilege system. So many were happy to see him back. The troops sent to fight him instead joined his campaign. And he once again became the emperor. The European powers declared him an illegitimate ruler and declared war aaginst him. led to **HUndred Days' War (1815). Finally defeated at Battle of Waterloo. He was exiled to St. Helena in southern Atlantic Ocean.**

Answer 26

1. War against the first coalition (1792-97): the neighbouring monarchies , threatened by the French revolution and finally triggered by France declaring war on Austria. The main members were Austria, Prussia, Britain,Spain and Napal states. As France gained new territories, it established sister republics eg. Batavian republic in present day Belgium. Napoleon led the southern flank and won crucial victories in northern Italy and finally forcing Austria to sue for peace. 2. War against the second coalition (1799-1802): against Britain, Austria and Russia. After initially being on backfoot, France bounced back under the new leader-Napoleon. crossing of Alps and the famous battle of Battle of Marengo. Austrians again sued for peace- Treaty of Luneville (1801) 3. War against the third coalition (1803-1806): Austria, Russia, Sweden and Naples formed the third coalition against France. But they met with total humiliation at the hands of Napoleon. Battle of Ulm saw the defeat of Austrians and Battle of Austerlitz saw the defeat of Russia. Naples was conquered in 1806. Austria was forced to sue for Peace (treaty of pressburg, 1805). But the remaining continued. 4. War against the Fourth coalition (1806-1807): Prussia joined the war. But they clashed with French forces by themselves and faced heavy defeat at the twin battles of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806. French army pursued the retreating prussians and took Berlin. Prussia lost a large part of its territories. 5. War aginst the Fifth coalition (1809): seeing France as occupied in Spain, Austria retried its hand. Though they were defeated in just 4 months but these battles were far more equal and bloodier than ever before. 6. War against the sixth coalition (1813-1814): after French defeat in russia, European forces smelled blood and attacked. Prussia, Russia and Sweden came together. Austria declared neutrality but joined the coalition later. Napoleon was finally defeated at the bigest and bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic wars - **Battle of Liepzig (1813).** 7. **War of Seventh coalition:** the allied powers declared war aginst Napoleon (declaring him as an illegitimate ruler of france). led to **Hundred Days' war. (1815). Finally defeated at Battle of Waterloo.**

Answer 27

1. commanded loyalty: soldiers perceived him as one of themselves. Early in his career he actively participated in the battles eg. battle of Lodi (1796) 2. The military manoeuvre genius: employed surprise in his attack strategies. eg. Siege of Genoa (1800) against the Austrians, wherein he along with his army moved quickly to cross the Alps and finally the famous battle of Marengo (1800). 3. Speed: favoured quick decisive battles 4. military corps system: organised his army into corps with each with their own infantry, cavalry and artillery, thus moved more independently, lived off the local land and thus didn't depend on supply train 5. dividing the enemy troops: employed in various battles eg. in third coalition of Europe war, prevented Austrian and Russian troops to join hands and moved rapidly to defeat austrian troops before the russians arrived. This forced Russia to retreat 6. Duping the enemy: He didn't shy away from being portrayed as vulnerable. eg. in the war aginst the third coalition, when Russia retreated, he followed them but soon shot off a conciliatory letter to Czar implying that he is vulnerable. Russians fell for this and instead of continuing retreating and dragging out the war which would hv been productive against the quick-decisive battle style of France, they attacked French troops in the **Battle of Austerlitz (Dec, 1805) and lost the war.** 7. Innovative artillery tactics: eg. pinning opponent army against a river and then just pushing them. eg. when Russians tried to retreat from the battle of Austerlitz, French artillery fired on the frozen ice of the river they were crossing and most of the Russian soldiers drowned

Answer 28

1. established strong and stable French state * centralized admin * established central secratariat- bureaucratic reforms 2. introduced restrictions on liberty for maintaining law and order * press censorship 3. introduced merit based admin appointments

Answer 29

1. recognised education as a tool to morph people's thoughts- used education to inculcate devotion towards state and Napoleon among the young minds 2. he said that states must control education 3. national assembly had already snatched away right to educate from religion, formed National education Council and French was declared as official language. Napoleon introduced the three tiered educatoin system- primary, secondary and higher education 4. written syllabus 5. established military school 6. set up French university system 7. He left some primary education in the hands of religious orders, but he offered public support to secondary education. Napoleon founded a number of state secondary schools designed to produce a standardized education that was uniform across France 8. Unlike the system during the Ancien Régime, religious topics did not dominate the curriculum. Study of sciences and modern and classical languages was also included. Thus established secular eduaction 9. He introduced the metric system and fostered the study of engineering.

Answer 30

1. Napoleon started codification of laws in the form of civil code, code of Criminal procedure, commercial code etc. 2. **stress on clearly written and accessible law for the whole of France** 3. aimed to **reform French legal code to reflect the principles of French revolution**- rule of law and equality 4. The Napoleonic code was **adopted throughout much of Continental Europe**, though only in the lands he conquered, and **remained in force after Napoleon's defeat**. 5. The code **spurred the development of bourgeois society** in many european countries by the **extension of the right to own property and an acceleration towards the end of feudalism.** 6. legalized divorce

Answer 31

1. Nationalisation: 1. established bank of France to regulate currency system in France 2. The first steps in establishing a public banking system 3. he introduced the franc de germinal which became the basis of his monetary system 4. This reform gave France the most stable currency in Europe at that time. It would remain the basis of France's currency for the next 120 years. 2. Much clearer divisions of roles between the ministry of finances and the treasury 3. promoted free trade: including in French occupied territories in Italy, germany 4. uniform tax policy 5. constructed infra- roads and bridges; canals for irrigation 6. Napoleon directly overthrew remnants of feudalism in much of western Continental Europe. He liberalized property laws, ended seigneurial dues (manor system of owning land and labor), abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship 7. re-introduced slavery 8. The continental blockade against Britain allowed France to sell their goods at higher price, esp in northern Europe 9. sold Louisiana to USA, sold other lands owned by Catholic Church to fund his wars 10. However the constant war footing of France and her economy didn't allow the rise of innovation and entrepreneurship trends that led to IR in Britain.

Answer 32

1. adopted secular policy- freedom to follow any religion 2. Initially at odds with Pope Pius VI. He invaded Italy, defeated papal troops, forced Pope to give up his temporal powers and declare Rome a republic and even arrested him when he refused. 3. Napoleon realized the importance of religion as a means to increase obedience and his power and control over the French. He sought to use religion as a way to keep the poor people placated 4. later entered into agreement with Pope- Concordant of 1801, that 1. gave control of the clergy back to the Pope 2. Catholic Church gave up its claaims to land that was confiscated after 1790. 3. It solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France and brought back most of its civil status 5. Napoleon emancipated Jews, as well as Protestants in Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countries, from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he expanded their rights to property, worship, and careers. Culture * created 'Legion of Honor', still the highest award in France * led many palaces' constructions

Answer 33

1. **Holy roman Empire was not a papal state**. It was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in Western, Central and Southern Europe that developed in the beginning of **9th cent CE** by the **agreement betn the Pope and the German emperor Charlamagne**. The Church **annointed the emperor as holy roman emperor, regarded as first among equals among other Roman Catholic monarchs across Europe**. In **14th century this post became an elected post** with the occupant decided by voting by electors who basically were the head of state of the constituent principalities. **For about 4 centuries, The Austrian emperor of the Habsburg empire owned the title of HRE by bribing the electors.** 2. After the **treaty of Luneville**, the German territories on the west bank of the Rhine were annexed to France. The treaty provided for the German rulers who lost territory west of the Rhine to be compensated elsewhere in the empire at the expense of the smaller states. This caused a **redrawal of the map of germany** wherein bigger states swallowed the smaller states. Both Austria and Prussia acquired some extra territory in the reorganization of 1803, but Napoleon made sure that the main gains went to states like **Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden**, which were not big enough to pose any threat to France. 3. After the **defeat of Austria in the third battle of European coalition in 1805**, Napoleon went on to organize the **Confederation of the Rhine** under his protection and in military alliance with France. **Sixteen German states joined the Confederation, which stretched from the Elbe to the Alps**. It was a French vassal state and Napoleon announced that the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation no longer existed. 4. The **abdication in August 1806**, combined with a dissolution of the entire imperial hierarchy and its institutions, was seen as necessary to prevent the possibility of Napoleon proclaiming himself as Holy Roman Emperor, something which would have reduced Francis II to Napoleon's vassal.

Answer 34

Britain, as part of the first coalition, and France went at war in 1793,which Napoleon ended with the 'Treaty of Amiens' in 1802. This started an uneasy peace. But this didn't last long and Britain re-declared war on france in 1804, as both sides had been violating the treaty. Napoleon sold Louisiana to USA to fund his invasion plans against Britain. But the mastery of the British navy in the sea menat that there were very few direct battles between the French and the British. British instead funded others in their wars against the French. allied with Spain to face British, but British victory at Battle of Trafalgar (1805), under British admiral Nelson, settled the question of British supremacy in the sea for ever. CONTINENTAL SYSTEM (1806) * the blockade (Berlin decree) designed by Napoleon to paralyze Great Britain through the destruction of British commerce. neutrals and French allies were not to trade with the British. * hurt English industries and helped spur the Luddite protest movement against unemployment in England. But no major effect as Britain increased her trade with non-european countries and her colonies. Share of Europe in her trade decreased from 55% to 25%. In India, led to **Charter Act of 1813** * Although it stimulated manufacturing in some parts of France, the system damaged regions dependent on overseas commerce. * The loss of Britain as a trading partner also hit the economies of France and its allies. * Because the British had an overwhelming superiority at sea, though, enforcing the system proved disastrous for Napoleon. The failure to comply was the reason for Napoleon invading Spain and Russia, both of which led to his downfall. * Portugal openly refused to join the Continental System. In 1793, Portugal signed a treaty of mutual assistance with Britain. This led to Frech invasion of Portugal (1807)

Answer 35

1. German-speaking Central Europe included more than 300 political entities, most of which were part of the Holy Roman Empire or the extensive Habsburg hereditary dominions. 2. Although the people were Germanic, they had little sense of national identity. 3. Napoleon reorganised Germany into 39 larger states. After the treaty of Luneville, the German territories on the west bank of the Rhine were annexed to France. The treaty provided for the German rulers who lost territory west of the Rhine to be compensated elsewhere in the empire at the expense of the smaller states. This caused a redrawal of the map of germany wherein bigger states swallowed the smaller states. Both Austria and Prussia acquired some extra territory in the reorganization of 1803, but Napoleon made sure that the main gains went to states like Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, which were not big enough to pose any threat to France. 4. IN 1806, after defeating Prussia, via the treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon presided over the creation of Confederation of Rhine, that absorbed petty states and was a confederation of 36 states in 1808. 5. This created a French ally between directly annexed French territory (west of Nile) and Austri-Prussia region. 6. This also led to dissolution of Holy roman empire. 7. This also meant that nearly all of the German territory was now under a unified French influence. The experience of German-speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands.

Answer 36

1. In 1796, the French Army of Italy under Napoleon invaded Italy with the aims of forcing the First Coalition to abandon Sardinia and forcing Austria to withdraw from Italy. 2. napoleon entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator. 3. Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution by 1799. He consolidated old units and split up Austria’s holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. The new republics were satellite states of Napoleon’s France, some of them joined with France by personal union under Napoleon’s authority. As all of these republics were imposed by an outside force, none had popular support in Italy. 4. When he became Emperor of France, he also styled himself as King of Italy. This happened with not much opposition: first because he emphasized his Italian orgins; and second because he was the man who had brought the revolution to the peninsula. 5. the peninsula was still divided in three areas: a part of it was directly part of French empire, another part in the North was the proper Kingdom and had its capital in Milan, and the south was ruled by Napoleon’s general Murat. Most of the laws were the same however, in particular the Code Napoleon was basically used in all of Italy.

Answer 37

1. fought against France in the first coalition war. 2. In 1804, allied with France against the British. Napoleon hoped the combined Spanish-french fleet could take on the British. But this dream was shattered in the **Battle of Trafalgar (1805).** Spain suffered massive loss. 3. **Spanish Ulcer** * French forces who were already in Spain for the invasion of Portugal, conquered Spain. Causes: * Spain's lacklustre implementation of blockade against Britain * the defeat of Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar menat the objective of defeating Britain was no more there, plus her own navy was decimated and so Spain was no more inteersted in this alliance * the proclamation by Godoy, the main man in the Spanish administartion, against France at the start of the fourth coalition war. Manuel Godoy did not support Napoleon. * The coup of Ferdinand VII against his father, Charles IV gave an excuse to Napoleon to interfere. * Napoleon mstakenly thought that since the Spnaish royal family is unpopular among her people, he will liberate the people and he will be hailed as a hero. * He declared his brother Joseph as King of Spain. * The spanish people revolted. * didn't like being ruled by a foreign power * didn't approve of Napoleon's poor treatment of the Pope earlier in his career. * the suppression of initial revolt in Madrid further fuelled the resistance and created martyrs * employed gureilla tactics in the Spanish countryside. Napoleon excelled at traditional warfare but this proved difficult for him * The war that followed resulted in a stalemate, but it had a heavy cost for the French because they were forced to keep a large amount of troops and resources in Spain which were greatly needed on the other fronts across central Europe * The Spanish Guerrillas along with the British troops who had successfully liberated Portugal kept the French pinned down in Spain for years. Spain was an open wound that refused to go away and so it was called “the Spanish ulcer”.

Answer 38

1. was defeated in the first and second war on European coalition 2. After defeat in the third coaliton war, Treaty of Pressburg (1805) forced Austria to give up territory, pay huge war indemnity and promised never to fight against France again. 3. Holy roman Empire was dissolved by the Austrian Emperor Francis II in 1806 4. As Napoleon was caught up in Spain, Austria attacked again in the fifth coalition war. They lost and lost some more territory. Napoleon married Francis' daughter and allied with France.

Answer 39

1. was defeated in the war of second coalition 2. Third coalition war- battle of Austerlitz 3. Fourth coalition war- battle of Friedland. russia was forced to sue for peace. led to **Treaties of Tilsit (1807).** Russia lost barely any territory, and instead joined France against Britain and invade Sweden. 4. The Russian and France alliance didn't last long. The Russian economy suffered due to British blockade and so they eventually began to open up trade. SoNapoleon decided to invade russia in 1812. He gathered the largest army Europe had ever seen and prepared for the invasion. 5. Russia responded by retreating deeper into the territory and followed scorched earth policy. This disrupted French forces living off the local land as well as was opposite to French style of quick-decisive battles.They even let Moscow to fall into napoleon's hands. Napoleon thought that Russia will now surrender and thus waited for Alexander's reply to his offer of surrender. But after a month of waiting, winter arrived and it started snowing. As he started to get his troops out of Russian territory, Russians attacked his supply lines, French troops died in huge numbers. Napoleon finally abandoned his men and went back to Paris.

Answer 40

Napoleon invading Spain was the spark that ignited the revolution. When he invaded in 1808, he also ousted the Spanish king and put his brother on the throne, which allowed L.A. leaders to see Spain’s weakness, so they declared independence. The British Navy blocked access to the New World, so ties were cut and authority weakened or absent. Juntas that propped up all over the continent supposedly did so to defend the colonies from Napoleon's clutches until the good king Fernando, deposed by Napoleon, could return.

Answer 41

1. abolition of EIC monopoly by Charter Act of 1813 2. 1798, Wellesley, subsidiary alliance 3. 1809- Freindship treaty with Ranjit Singh 4. Tipu sultan- Jacobian club

Answer 42

Prior to the 1500s, in Europe, most people did not consider themselves part of a nation; they rarely left their village and knew little of the larger world. They were more likely to identify themselves with their region or local lord. At the same time, the rulers of states frequently had little control over their countries. Instead, local feudal lords had a great deal of power, and kings often had to depend on the goodwill of their subordinates to rule. Laws and practices varied a great deal from one part of the country to another. The initial monarches accumulated power for themselves. eg. Henry VII wins the War of the Roses in England, begins the Tudor dynasty, and starts the development of the English nation-state in 1485. Spain is united by Ferdinand while Ivan the Terrible rules Russia. After the thirty yrs war (1618-1648), **Treaty of Westphalia cements the legal status of the nation-state as sovereign.**

Answer 43

1. **Rennaisance**: provided fillip to national **language**, scholars began producing **literature in local languages**. Prior to this Latin and Greek dominated the Europe. new societies based on local languages started developing. **Rennaisance broke the cultural unity of the Europe**. Factors of **race and ethnicity cropped up**. 2. **Enlightenment**, during the Rennaisance, started **questioning the authority of religion**.**Protestants** challenged the Catholic church. When Catholic Church stopped **Henry VIII of England from Divorcing his wife**, he broke from Pope and established an independent Protestant Curch in 1530s. led to **Thirty yrs war.** 3. **commercial rivalries amongst merchants**: Merchants with the support of their kings, of different countries, greatly contributed to the rise of the nation-state. They also played the role of messenger of international happenings in terms of nation system building. 4. Rise of a **strong middle class: end of feudalism** 5. influence of **intellectuals**: such as Emmanuel Kant, John Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire and many more had spread the ideas of political, social progressive ideals. They educated the common masses 6. effects of **French revolution and spread of humanist ideas** 7. **military campaigns**: eg. Role played by **Napoleon Bonaparte** in triggering the feeling of affinity, togetherness and linguistic affinity Among masses ultimately resulted in Unification of many nation-states, such as Germany, Italy. 8. Development of **transport and communication infrastructure**

Answer 44

Following the defeat of Napoleon, the major European powers of the day met in Vienna, austria to establish a plan for peace and resolve other problems that were created by Napoleon. This was called The Congress of Vienna. The major powers in World War II Austria,Prussia, Russia, britain and France. chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich. He was of the opinion that the period of the past century of enlightenment and reason led to endless revolutions and wars. Thus, they sought to revert back to the conservative regime of Europe.

Answer 45

With the broader obj of stopping the growth of three *isms-* Liberalism, nationalism and Republicanism. 1. restoring old monarchies 2. surround France with strong powers to prevent any repeat of Napoloeon like uprising but at the same time maintain a Balance of power so that no single power becomes too powerful 3. spoils for the victors and redrawing of boundaries

Answer 46

1. Borbon empire was re-established in france. Louis XVIII, brother of Louis VI, was placed as French emperor. 2. Netherlands and Belgium were united under the house of Orange-Nassau 3. The King of Sardinia, re-established in Piedmont and Nice 4. House of Savoy dynasty regained contrl of Piedmont-Sardinia and their control of their mainland territories- Nice and Genoa were restored. genoa was made a republic by Napoleon.

Answer 47

1. To obviate any future revolution from France, France was surrounded by powerful states * Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized. * Prussia gained territories like Westphalia and northern Rhineland * the Dutchy of Warsaw (Poland) was distributed between russia, Austria and Prussia 2. However to check Russia's strength, a strong monarchy was re-established in France 3. Britain received sme of France's territories in the Indian ocean and the Carribean 4. Prussia was allocated with 3/5th Saxony 5. Austria was given parts of Italian territory like Lombardy-Venetia * Austrian princes were placed in charge in parma, Modena and Tuscany 6. the Dutchy of Warsaw (Poland) was distributed between russia, Austria and Prussia 7. German Confederation: The Confederatio of Rhine was dissolved back in 1813. However, Vienna Congress confirmed the 39 membered German Confederation made up of German speaking states, under the leadership of Austrian emperor. Most members of the Confederation of the Rhine located in central and southern Germany survived with minor border changes. They, along with the reinstated states, Prussia, and Austria, formed the German Confederation. it was created as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire 8. The Papal States were restored to the Pope.

Answer 48

1. The first coming together of almost all of Europe. Congress was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties instead of relying mostly on messages among the several capitals. 2. brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. 3. initiated a relatively peaceful period of peace in Europe that was broken when Britain and France participated in the Crimean wars.

Answer 49

1. went back to conservatism and romanticism 2. Gains made in terms of humanist ideals like liberty, equality and fraternity were reversed 3. though members from many small principalities were involved in the congress, the decision making was done by the 5 major powers only 4. Though a broader peace was seen for next few decades, inner turmoil occured in many European countries during the revolution of 1830 and 1848 5. Except Piedmont-Sardinia, all other places were ruled by foreigners

Answer 50

AKA French revolution of 1830 aka seconf French revolution causes: * after Charles X succeded Louis VIII after the latter's death. He became unpopular because of two of his initiatives- 1) an anti-sacrilege act, which threatened the ideal of equality of religion, and 2) an indemnity law for those whose property was confiscated during the revolution. * under popular backlash, his govt also introduced proposals for tightening censorship * Later he dissolved the parliament and delayed the election for two months, sought to exclude commercial middle class from future elections etc. Imapct/significance: * end of Bourbon dynasty's rule in France * , Louis Philippe of the House of Orléans, who agreed to rule as a constitutional monarch, came to power * replacement of the principle of hereditary right by that of popular sovereignty. * stregthening of French middle class * cascading effect in Europe * mass revolutions in Europe- Spain, portugal, poland, belgium * belgium wrested independence from Holland * rebellion in germany and Italy-suppressed by Metternich * termed as beginning of end of Vienna system

Answer 51

AKA 1848 revolution causes: 1. Louis Orleans was supported by privileged Financial aristocracy like bankers, mine owners, landowners but not by the industrial section of the bourgeoisie 2. influence of a wider wind of socialism in Europe at the time 3. only 1% of French pop had right to vote due to property ownership requirements, People demanded reforms to increase voter franchise. King rejected. People took to the streets. Impact: 1. ended the Orleans' rule in france 2. end of Constitutional monarchy in france 3. established the French Second republic 4. Napoleon III, a kin of Napoleon, was elected President. he later declares himself emperor in 1852. 5. strengthening of lower class 6. impact in Europe * nationalist uprisings in Italy, germany, holland and HUngary * People revolted against Metternich. He had to run away. * End of Vienna system * proliferation of socialist ideas.

Answer 52

1. Role of Napoleon 1. Italy before Napoleon 2. after Napoleon 2. Vienna Congress 3. 1830 and 1848 revolutions 4. Mazzini 5. Garibaldi 6. Cavour 7. The four stages of Italian unification

Answer 53

1. south Italy- Naples and Sicily ruled by Bourbon dynasty of France 2. central Italy- 1. Papal states 2. Tuscany- Austrian princes 3. North Italy 1. Venitia-Lombardy: under influence of Austria 2. Parma, Modena- Austrian princes 3. Sardinia-Piedmont: ruled by local House of Savoy

Answer 54

1. most of them were city states 2. smaller states jealous of each other 3. foreign domination, except Piedmont-Sardinia 4. geographical barriers 5. Regional disparity 6. no harmony among leaders 7. diverse culture

Answer 55

The Habsburg rule in Italy came to an end with the campaigns of the French Revolutionaries in 1792–97, when a series of client republics were set up. Under Napoleon, the peninsula was divided into three entities: the northern parts which were annexed to the French Empire: Piedmont, Liguaria, Parma, Tuscany and Rome The newly created Italian republic which later became Kingdom of Italy with Napoleon as her king- Lombardy, Venitia, Modena Kingdom of Naples, which was first ruled by Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte, but then passed to Napoleon’s brother-in-law Joachim Murat.

Answer 56

1. end of rule of Habsburg empire and the Holy roman empire 2. virtually under the same ruler- a sense of common identity 3. Napoleon ended the last vestiges of Feudalism and brought in a new order based on uniform taxation, codified laws, freedom of religion 4. inspired by the French egalitarian ideals 5. removal of trade barriers (increased interconnectedness) and development of infrastructure (rly lines) and communication led to geographical contiguity and a feeling of nationalism

Answer 57

most of the Italian states were reconstituted: * Francis I of Austria also became king of Lombardy-Venetia, which was incorporated into the Habsburg state. * Savoy dynasty was restored in Piedmont and Nice as well as Genoa * Austrian princes were again put in charge of Parma, Modena, Tuscany * Papal states were restored in central Italy Thus, Vienna settlement dismantled the three aristocratic republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca; it strengthened Piedmont and restored undisputed Austrian hegemony in the peninsula.

Answer 58

1. 1830 revolution: * rebellion in Utaly-suppressed by Metternich's army 2. 1848 revolution: * People revolted aginst Metternich * metternich had to run away and fall of Vienna system

Answer 59

1. Silvio Pellico- wrote about his time in Austrian prison; became very popular 2. Gioberti- 'Moral and civil superiority of Italy'

Answer 60

1. Carbonari 2. Mazzini- heart of Italian unification 3. Garibaldi- Sword of Italian unification 4. Count Cavour- Brain of Italian unification

Answer 61

secret society of charcoal burners- 1810 aimed to free Italy from foreigners and establishment of legal freedom

Answer 62

1. Heart of Italian unification 2. established 'Young Italy'- secret organisation; within 2 yrs 60000 members 3. participated in 1830 rev; exiled to france 4. helped in creating mass support for the unification 1. He emphasized the glory of Italian past. 2. He put forth the glorious achievements of history in front of the masses to motivate them and to instill a sense of national pride among them. 5. Mazzini was republican by principles and opposed the monarchial institutions and emphasized upon the natural rights of the citizens and the end of all forms of exploitation. 6. The speeches and writings of Mazzini brought intellectual revolution in Italy and ideological unification could take place before political unification. 7. The spirit of nationalism generated and strengthened by Mazzini could be used by Cavour to instigate popular revolts against foreign rule and to unify various small principalities through referendum.

Answer 63

1. Sword of Italian unification 2. was a member of Young Italy 3. Drove out Austrian forces from Venice-Lombardy during 1848 revolution for some time, though AUstrian forces ultimately prevailed 4. came back to italy in 1854 and helped in bringing the southern Italian states into the unification process. In 1860, Garibaldi cobbled together an army (referred to as the “Thousand”) to march into the southern part of the peninsula. Landing first in Sicily and then moving onwards into Naples, Garibaldi and his men overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and turned over the southern territories to Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia.

Answer 64

1. brain of Italian unification 2. became PM of king of Piedmont Sardinia- Victo Emmanuel II,in 1852 3. published a newspaper- risorgimento (resurgence) 4. used the twin tools of * diplomacy * sought to neutralise Britain and France in case of the eventual conflict with Austria * sent his troops to fight alongside British and French forces in the Crimean war of 1854 against russia. * When Russia was defeated, in the Paris conference, he highlighted the suppression of Italians under Austrian rule, laying the groundwork * signed Plombier's pact with Napoleon III- France will help Italy to fight against Austria. France in turn to be given territories of Nice and Savoy. This was further sealed with matrimonial alliance * ***_It is said that the flower of Italian unification bloomed in the marshes of Crimea_*** * economic and political reform * sought to make Piedmont Sardinia as a model Italian state * liberty of press * civil rights * establishment of banks and cooperative societies * abolished privileges of church * while ensuring economic development, also strengthened his army 5. Thereafter he started his unification mission. This was achieved in 4 stages 1. Conquest of Piedmont in Franco-Austrian war in 1859 2. Plebiscite in northern states of Parma-Modena-Tuscany in 1860 and Taking over naples and Sicily in 1860 with the help of Garibaldi * Count Cavour passed away in 1861 and the further unifiaction is attributed to Victor emmanuel II. 1. Joining of venice after Austrian defeat against Prussia in 1866 2. absorbing Rome during Franco-Prussian war in 1870

Answer 65

1. Cavour instigated rebellion against Austrian rulers in Piedmont-Sardinia 2. provoked Austria to declare war in 1859, thus launching the conflict that served to unify the northern Italian states together against their common enemy: the Austrian Army. 3. As Austria invaded, France intervened and Austria was defeated by Piedmont-Sardinia and France 4. In the peace negotiations, Austria ceded Lombardy to France, which then ceded it to Piedmont-Sardinia.

Answer 66

1. As Austria invaded Sardinia-Piedmont, it unified northern states in a common anti-Austrian feeling. 2. People in these states started rebelling which Austria tried to suppress 3. Cavour highlighted the suppression and convinced other European powers to not inerfere and rather persuade Austria for a plebiscite in these states as people's will should be sovereign. Britain and France, agreed to this and denied interfering (success of Cavour's diplomacy) 4. the states voted to join Piedmont-Sardinia, with the ultimate goal of unifying the entire peninsula

Answer 67

obstacle: southern peninsula was rule dby France. Cavour could not directly interfere He used Garibaldi for this. In 1860, Garibaldi cobbled together an army (referred to as the “Thousand”) of 'Red Shirts' to march into the southern part of the peninsula. Landing first in Sicily and then moving onwards into Naples, Garibaldi and his men overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and turned over the southern territories to Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia. the new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed on March 17, 1861, with the royal family of Piedmont-Sardinia as the new ruling monarchs of Italy.

Answer 68

Cavour entered into an agreement with Bismarck to help Prussia against Austria and in return will get venetia. The same happened whe Prussia defeated Austria in 1866 Austro-Prussian war.

Answer 69

French troops were the main barrier to Italian occupation of the Papal States after 1867; however, when France declared war upon Prussia in the summer of 1870, the Italians took advantage of the situation. With French resources allocated to the struggle of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Napoleon III ordered his troops out of the Italian peninsula. The Italians entered the Papal States in September 1870 and, through the backing of a plebiscite held in early October, annexed the Papal States and Rome to the Kingdom of Italy. To placate the Christian population, he gave a sovereign piece of land in Vatican to Pope.

Answer 70

1. Strengthening of Prussia 2. Weakening of Austria 3. Bismarck's policy of Blood and Iron 4. German feelings of nationalism

Answer 71

1. Vienna COngress had established a loose German Confederation headed by Austria, with a "Federal Diet" that met in the city of Frankfurt 2. the emperors of Austria became the titular presidents of this parliament. Problematically, the built-in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia's 18th-century emergence in Imperial politics. 3. Despite the nomenclature of Diet (Assembly or Parliament), this institution should in no way be construed as a broadly, or popularly, elected group of representatives. Many of the states did not have constitutions, and those that did based suffrage on strict property requirements which effectively limited suffrage to a small portion of the male population 4. The surge of German nationalism, stimulated by the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period and initially allied with liberalism, shifted political, social, and cultural relationships within the German states 5. implicit and sometimes explicit promises made during the German Campaign of 1813 engendered an expectation of popular sovereignty and widespread participation in the political process, promises that largely went unfulfilled once peace had been achieved.

Answer 72

* Burschenschaft: * student associations * ideals of german nationalism emerged in universities * supported unification of german states * intellectuals and philosphers created cultural unity among the Germans and raised the spirit of nationalism among them. * **Freidrich Hegel** pointed towards french revolution as an example of success of revolution in becoming a constitutional state of fee states. * **Fichte** created a shift towards German nationalism that was supported by the **Romanticism** movement around the same time. He was strongly influenced by Kant and believed that “Germaness” meant striving for freedom. he asked questions like "what is a people", "what is love of the fatherland". * Kant's idea of 'self' defined a way for Germans to have an identity independent of foreigners.

Answer 73

Having abolished its own internal tariffs in 1818, Prussia began inviting individual states to eliminate tariffs. Gradually individual states start joining. the German customs union was Organized by the 1833 Zollverein treaties. it unified various separate customs union negotiated by Prussia. Zollverein was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. The foundation of the Zollverein was the first instance in history in which independent states consummated a full economic union without the simultaneous creation of a political federation or union By 1866, the Zollverein included almost all of the German states except Austrian territories Austria was excluded from the Zollverein because of its highly protected industry and also because Prince von Metternich was against the idea impact: 1. helped in economic development of all German states, especially the Prussian regions, driving its future endeavours 2. common market increased interdependedness of the various indicvidual states 3. improved trasport and communication led to cultural intermingling 4. The strengthened German capitalist class felt the need for political unification to compete with state backed capitalist class of france and Britain 5. was the Foundation of **Prussia's policy of Coal and Iron:** political integration using economic integration and development

Answer 74

1. Prussia had become the most industrialised state in Germany. 1. Prussia was producing more key resources such as coal and iron than Austria 2. production of iron and coal was five times more than that of Austria 2. Prussia passed a number of reforms to help the lower classes: taxes were lowered the government helped peasants take out loans there was less regulation for the coal and iron industries workers experienced better working conditions.

Answer 75

Economic * Austria could barely compete with the economic benefits of the Zollverein. * Austria’s geographical position meant that it could not trade as easily as Europe’s northern states. The Danube was not as central as the Rhine * southern Europe had not benefited as much from the Industrial Revolution and spread of the railways. In fact, southern Europe was still relatively agricultural. * The poor performance of Austria’s armies in the 1859 war with France emphasised how backward and inefficient their industry and economy were. International * Austria had lost key allies and was losing influence in Europe, becoming increasingly isolated. * Austria had long been an ally of Russia. But Austria had refused to help Russia during the Crimean War of 1854-56 against France and Britain and thus lost a key ally * Austria was further isolated in 1859 when it fought a war with France and the northern Italian Kingdoms.

Answer 76

1. was a conservative German statesman 2. Though opposed to socialism, Bismarck created the first welfare state in the modern world, with the goal of gaining working class support that might otherwise go to his Socialist opponents 3. In the 1870s, he allied himself with the low-tariff, anti-Catholic Liberals and fought the Catholic Church in what was called the Kulturkampf 4. Bismarck followed Realpolitik politics or diplomacy based primarily on considerations of given circumstances and factors, rather than explicit ideological notions or moral and ethical premises. As such, it shares aspects of its philosophical approach with those of realism and pragmatism and has been described as politics that is perceived as coercive, amoral, or Machiavellian. 5. “A government must not waiver once it has chosen its course. It must not look to the left or right but go forward.” 6. “The great questions of the day will not be settled by means of speeches and majority decisions but by iron and blood.”

Answer 77

"Iron and Blood" or "Eisen und Blut" is part of a speech given to the Prussian Parliament by Otto von Bismarck imploring the Parliament to increase the budget provided for military expenditures. He meant that the unification of Germany will be brought about through the strength of the military forged in iron and the the blood spilled through warfare. To strengthen Prussian army, they needed to raise money through taxation. The Prussian Parliament refused to allow money to be raised in this way. Bismarck ignored the Parliament - he collected money for military reforms through direct taxation. Further, he increased army conscriptions from 2 to 3 yrs; introduced new battle tactics and new weapons such as needle guns.

Answer 78

1. unify German speaking states 2. under leadership of Prussia 3. remove Austria from German states 4. regain Alsace and Lorraine from france, as it cannot be allowed to be strong

Answer 79

1. war against denmark 1864 2. war against austria 1866 3. War against france 1870

Answer 80

background: From 1460 on, Schleswig and Holstein had been ruled together by a common Duke – who was also the King of Denmark. Holstein was included in the German confederation in 1815 By the early 19th century, Holstein's population was almost entirely ethnically German, along with much of Schleswig's. Both Schleswig and Holstein had been ruled through institutions separate from the rest of the Danish Kingdom. But the king of denmark signed a new constitution in 1863 which applied to Schleswig as well. Prussia came together with Austria, defeated Denmark and gave Holstein to Austria while keeping Schleswig for herself.

Answer 81

1. Bismarck needed to isolate Austria 1. Russia: Bismarck supported russian suppression of Polish revolt in 1863. Also since Austria didn't support Russia during Crimean wars, Russia was separated. 2. entered into agreement with France- promised Napoleon III some territorial gain in return for French neutrality during Austro-Prussian war 3. Austria will not intervene in future Prussian wars 4. also Prussia and Italy had entered into mutual defence agreement against Austria in 1866 2. started instigating people of holstein who were mostly ethnically German and finally provoked Austria to war. 3. Austria was defeated by Prussia and Italian forces in battle of Sadowa in 1866 4. Treaty of Prague was signed between Austria and Prussia 1. Austria was excluded from german affairs and agreed to german unification under Prussia sans Austria 2. Holstein was ceded to germany 3. venetia was recognised ass part of Italy 5. Germany annexed other smaller states like Hanover, nassau while left others under Prussian influence. All these territories, north of river Main, were joined under the name of **North German Confederation**

Answer 82

* through force of arms, a powerful state could challenge the old alliances and spheres of influence established in 1815. * through diplomatic maneuvering, a skillful leader could create an environment in which a rival state would declare war first, thus forcing states allied with the "victim" of external aggression to come to the leader's aid. This was redone in Prussian war against France * Prussian military capacity far exceeded that of Austria, Prussia was clearly the only state within the Confederation capable of protecting all of them from potential interference or aggression. In 1866, most mid-sized German states had opposed Prussia, but by 1870 these states had been coerced and coaxed into mutually protective alliances with Prussia.

Answer 83

1. Points of tension between France and Prussia 1. disgruntled French public over France remaining neutral over defeat of traditional ally Austria by Prussia 2. France was worried over the growing power of Prussia 3. Bismarck wanted to use war with France as a common cause for invigorating the German nationalism in southern german states so that they do not defy unification under Germany. Bismarck said "I knew that a Franco-Prussian War must take place before a united Germany was formed."Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the Southern German States to side with Prussia 4. France wanted the region around Rhine to remain neutral. Prussia was opposed to this. 5. France wanted to purchase Luxembourg but prussia was oppsoed to this 6. immediate cause- candidacy of a Prussian prince- Leopold, to the throne of Spain – France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The prince's candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, but Bismarck goaded the French into declaring war by altering a telegram sent by William I. Releasing the Ems Telegram to the public, Bismarck made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion. This hurt French pride and France declared war on Prussia . In respose southern german states immediately sided with Prussia. 2. France lost at the Battle of Sedan 3. Treaty of Frankfurt in 1871 * France had to pay a large war indemnity * Germany got Alsace and Lorraine * Bismarck proclaimed Second reich (first was the Holy roman Empire by Frederick ) * William I crowned emperor of Germany 4. The German unification was proclaimed in the Versailles Palace and this humiliation laid the ground of Germanhatred in French, which led to humilitaion of Germany post WW1 by France

Answer 84

mindmap in GS-1 folder

Answer 85

1. Imperialistic rivalries 2. enmity between nations of Europe 3. ethnic disputes within Europe 4. growing militarisation 5. Alliances and secret agreements 6. jingoistic nationalism

Answer 86

As the western European nations developed as a result of Industrial revolution, they sought more raw materials and wider market. This led to proliferation of colonialism and Imperialism. eg. * The *weldpolitik* of germany under Kaiser Wilhelm II * Berlin conference of 1885- Scramble of Africa * Moroccon crisis of 1905

Answer 87

acted as fuel in fire especially between Germany-France and Austria-Serbia war was considered apart of natural order and was even extolled as a virtue. war was viewed by some as one of "divine elements of the universe" and "a condition for progress"

Answer 88

1. France vs Germany * France's humiliation after Battle of Sedan at the hands of Germany; taking away of Alsace-Lorraine by germany * Bismarck sought to isolate France in Europe and tried forming allinces like League of three emperors with AUstria and Russia. 2. Anglo Japanese alliance in 1902 was done due to English apprehension over Russia-Germany relations 3. Austria vs Serbia- Bosnia crisis in 1908 4. second balkan war between Bulgaria and Serbia in 1913

Answer 89

1. Russia's pan-slavism 2. First Balkan war in 1912 of Balkan League vs Turkey 3. Austria-Hungarian regions includedCzechs of bohemia, Slovaks, Poles, Romanians, Serbs and Croats 4. The immediate cause of WW was also the conflict between Austria and Serbia over Bosnia which housed ~3mn Serbs

Answer 90

* Triple alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy in 1882. They played the role of Central powers in the war * Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902 * Triple Entente in 1907 * These treaties ensured that any war will not remain just between the aggrieved states and will spread between allies as well

Answer 91

every country suspected and feared the other. eg. Though the triple entente was not a military alliance per se and was just a mutual settlement of territorial disputes, it threatened Germany so much so that it attacked France pre-emptively as soon as it decalred war on Russia. Naval race between England and Germany most European countries introduced conscription

Answer 92

Germany was wary of Franco-Russian alliance and feared that it will be encircled. Thus it planned to have Austria serve as a buffer state. It was expected to hold Russia long enough for Germany to defeat France and then combined Austria-german forces would have defeated Russia.

Answer 93

1. End of monarchy in Germany and establishment of Germany as Weimar Republic 2. Russian revolution 3. Disintegration of Austria Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire and Russian empire 4. slogan of self-determination got strong-\> devlopment of nation states: new nations were created from its land: Austria, Hungary,Latvia, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia,Yugoslavia. and Poland among others 5. Emergence of USA and Japan 6. establishment of League of nations for permanent peace

Answer 94

1. shattering of world economy ~ 400Bn$ loss * LCF Turner termed it as WW1 as 'Tragedy of miscalculation' * GDP increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and the United States), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. * During the war, growth in war economy- iron and steel, while other sectors suffered 2. micro-consequences * Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. 3. demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment. 4. The rationing by many nations in te afermath of the war led to a new wave of socialism 5. change in world trade pattern: 1. earlier Europe was the exporter to Asia and Africa 2. after the war, Europe became importer from america and Japan 3. promotion of Laissez Faire 6. Severe debt crisis in Europe 7. inflation: particularly in German mark eg. 1$ appreciated from 300marks in 1922 to 50000marks in 1923

Answer 95

1. \>10mn died and \>20mn injured 2. demographic crisis: surplus women. The deaths of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million: from 670,000 to 1,700,000. 3. Loss of young male population: thus increasing share of dependent population 4. increased share of female in labor force renewed the female suffrage movement and gave impetus to women empowerment 5. ideological changes: 1. questions about racial and civilisational superiority of Europe; books like 'Decay of European civilisation' 2. disillusionment with religion- increase in atheism

Answer 96

1. 1905 rev 2. Feb rev 3. Oct rev 4. Civil war

Answer 97

1. Russian society- privilege based * clergy at the top- Rasputin's influence on Royal family * Aristocrats and Nobles- held high offices in govt; opposed new ideas from western Europe * vast estates owned by the aristocracy and the church * peasants and workers (after some industrialisation was introduced after 1905 rev ): extreme poverty; serfdom abolished in 1861 but condition of peasantry very bad * Women made up 31 per cent of the factory labour force by 1914, but they were paid less than men * 20000 landlords controlled 180mn acres of land while 10 mn peasants owned 190 mn acres * Nobles got their power and position through their services to the Tsar, not through local popularity. This was unlike France where, during the French Revolution in Brittany, peasants respected nobles and fought for them. In Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them. Frequently, they refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords. In 1902, this occurred on a large scale in south Russia. And in 1905, such incidents took place all over Russia * *NOT A CAUSE BUT NICE INFO: Russian peasants pooled their land together periodically and their commune (mir) divided it according to the needs of individual families* * had many ethnic minorities; repressed religious minorities, non-Russians

Answer 98

1. spread of socialism and communism- influence of Marx and Maxim Gorky 2. liberal ideas of western Europe was entering Russia

Answer 99

1. largely agricultural society (25% of russian empire's population earned their living from agriculture); very limited industrialisation- only 500 odd factories in russia by 1910. Though Serge Witte managed to convince Czar for industrializatio in Russia but the new factories saw long working hours in poor conditions for low wages. This created discontent among the industrial workers 2. flawed taxation policy: privileges to aristocrats and nobles 3. impoverished peasant class had to bear the cost of constant wars waged by the Czar- 1905 war with Japan, 1st WW 4. lavish lifestyle of royal family 5. corruption and inefficient economy

Answer 100

1. absolute monarchy- ruled by Czar Nicholas II of Romanov dynasty- in face of increasing spread of formation of nation states in Europe 2. no freedom of expression- Okhrana, a secret police to curb any and all criticism of Czar. All kind of political parties were banned in Russia before 1914. 3. socialist ideas had begun taking root in Russia since last qtr of 19th century. In 1898, various socialist grps joined together to form the **Russian social Democratic Labor Party (worked illegally since foundation in 1898)****** * In 1903, there was a split in the party- **Bolsheviks** (literally meaning *majority*) and **Mensheviks** (meaning *minority*) * Bolsheviks were hardliners with obj * establishment of socialism * ending he autocratic rule of Czar * establishment of a republic * ending the oppression of non-Russian natinoalities of the Russian empire and granting them the right to self-determination 4. a new form of workers' organization had come into being, called Soviets. It was a body of workers' representatives set up for the purpose of conducting strikes. Later similar soviets of peasants and soldiers also cropped up. These would play an important role in future revolutions. * Peasants as socialist forces: * already had a culture of pooling together their resources * Socialist revolutionary Party founded in 1900 struggled for peasants' rights * Lenin felt that peasants were not one united group. Some were poor and others rich, some worked as labourers while others were capitalists who employed workers. 5. failed to win the war against Japan- a war to distract the russian people from their grievances * loss of national morale * loss of confidence in Czar's govt 6. after 1905 revolution, establishes *Duma* * *1906-1914* * veryy limited power * voting rules prevented the Czar's opponents to be elcted as members * could not substantively influence Russian policies * However, some reforms brought about by Peter Stolypin- land reforms, improved conditions of workers and peasants, settled peasants in Siberia * 1911- Stolypin assassinated- led to protest against the Czar betn 1911-1914 7. In WW1, Russia had lost 1.7 mn soldiers by 1917 8. Finally in Feb 1917, facing people's protests, Czar Nicholas II abdicates his throne and Alexander Kerensky forms the provisional govt

Answer 101

The year 1904 was a particularly bad one for Russian workers. Prices of essential goods rose so quickly that real wages declined by 20 per cent 22 Jan 1905- A non-violent petitioning crowd was led by a priest, Father Gapon, asking for more freedom and better working conditions, was shot at. ~200 civilians died. This was called 'Bloody Sunday' This added fuel to the fire of discontent against the czar. Liberals, Sociaal Democrats, Socialist revolutionaries along with Nationalists in Poland and *Jadidists* in Muslim dominated areas led the revolution to demand a constitution Strikes (coordinated by Soviets, elected rep body of industrial workers) erupted across the empire, demanding better working conditions; liberals demanded political power; peasats demanded land reforms Unrest also began among militarymen- famous mutiny on Battleship *Potemkin* Half of European Russia's industrial workers went on strike in 1905, and 93.2% in Poland Result: **October Manifesto -** granting basic civil rights, allowing the formation of political parties, extending the franchise towards universal suffrage, and establishing the Duma as the central legislative body. The concessions came hand-in-hand with renewed, and brutal, action against the unrest.

Answer 102

1. When the manifesto was proclaimed, there were spontaneous demonstrations of support in all the major cities. The strikes in Saint Petersburg and elsewhere officially ended or quickly collapsed. 2. While the Russian liberals were satisfied by the October Manifesto and prepared for upcoming Duma elections, radical socialists and revolutionaries denounced the elections and called for an armed uprising to destroy the Empire. 3. The Russian Constitution of 1906, also known as the Fundamental Laws, based on the October Manifesto, set up a multiparty system and a limited constitutional monarchy. * While the Duma held the power of legislation and the right to question the Tsar's ministers, it did not have control over their appointment or dismissal, which was reserved to the monarch alone. Nor could it alter the constitution, save upon the emperor's initiative. The Tsar retained an absolute veto over legislation, as well as the right to dismiss the Duma at any time, for any reason he found suitable. * The Duma failed to gain substantive power though frm the hands of the Czar. He dismissed the First and Second Dumas and later unilaterally altered the constitution to ensure more landed persons would be elected to the future dumas 4. the start of the Days of Freedom, a six-week period from 17 October to early December. This period witnessed an unprecedented level of freedom on all publications—revolutionary papers, brochures, etc.—even though the tsar officially retained the power to censor provocative material. This opportunity allowed the press to address the tsar, and government officials, in a harsh, critical tone previously unheard of. the Days of Freedom witnessed unionization in the history of the Russian Empire at its apex. At least 67 unions were established in Moscow, as well as 58 in St. Petersburg 5. Lenin, as later head of the USSR, called it "The Great Dress Rehearsal", without which the "victory of the October Revolution in 1917 would have been impossible"

Answer 103

* Long term causes similar to that for the 1905 rev * Short term causes 1. The declaration of war in 1914 was followed by a revival of nationalism across Russian society, which temporarily reduced internal strife. But by 1917, Nearly six million casualties—dead, wounded and missing—had been accrued. The war weariness, falling morale and inadequate supply of provisions, led to mutinies and large scale desertions. 2. the wartime alliance of industry, Duma (lower house of parliament) and Stavka (Military High Command) started to work outside the Tsar's control 3. In an attempt to boost morale and repair his reputation as a leader, Tsar Nicholas announced in the summer of 1915 that he would take personal command of the army. The result was disastrous. It further associaated the monarchy with an unpopular war while exposing the inadequacy of Nicholas. Plus, this left the reins of power to his wife, the German Tsarina Alexandra. The control of Russia left to a German while Russia fighting Germans was not a good look. 4. Unpopularity of Alexandra-Rasputin: The Tsarina proved an ineffective ruler in a time of war, announcing a rapid succession of different Prime Ministers and angering the Duma. 5. a famine loomed and commodities became scarce, due to the overstretched railroad network. Meanwhile, refugees from German-occupied Russia came in their millions. As they retreated, the Russian army destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from being able to live off the land. The destruction of crops and buildings led to over 3 million refugees in Russia. 6. The Russian economy was blocked from Europe's markets by war. By 1916, railway lines began to break down. Able-bodied men were called up to the war. As a result, there were labour shortages and small workshops producing essentials were shut down. Large supplies of grain were sent to feed the army. For the people in the cities, bread and flour became scarce. led to Hyperinflation

Answer 104

Protests erupted in Petrograd (St. Petersburg renamed as it sounded German). workers of Putilov factory, largest in Petrograd, announced a strike on 8th March (International Women's Day), \>100000 women came out protesting the govt's food rationing. bread riots erupted across Petrograd. Soon both men and women flooded the streets of Petrograd, demanding an end to Russian food shortages, the end of World War I and the end of autocracy. Soon soldiers ordered to rein in the protestors also joined their cause Socialists formed the Petrograd Soviet, first created during the 1905 revolution, to represent workers and soldiers.. Duma, was dismissed by the Czar Symbols of the Tsarist regime were rapidly torn down around the city and governmental authority in the capital collapsed On 2nd march, Czar abdicated, ending romanov dynastic rule and the Russian empire

Answer 105

* On 3rd March, a provisional government was announced by the Provisional Committee of the State Duma. The Provisional Government published its manifesto declaring itself the governing body of the Russian Empire that same day * The manifesto proposed a plan of civic and political rights and the installation of a democratically elected Russian Constituent Assembly, but did not touch on many of the topics that were driving forces in the revolution such as participation in World War I and land * The ensuing months saw dual rule in Russia- **While the Soviet represented the proletariat, the provisional government represented the bourgeoisie.** The Soviet had stronger practical power because it controlled the workers and the soldiers, but it did not want to become involved in administration and bureaucracy; the Provisional Government lacked support from the population. * The soviets held the real power to effect change. **The Provisional Government represented an alliance between liberals and socialists who wanted political reform**. * Dual Power was not prevalent outside of the capital and political systems varied from province to province. **In the spring of 1917, 700 soviets were established across Russia, equalling about a third of the population**, representing the proletariat and their interests. The soviets spent their time pushing for a constituent assembly rather than swaying the public to believe they were a more morally sound means of governing. * under Alexander Kerensky's Menshevik (social govt) govt * lasts for 8-9 months only i.e. uptil Oct 1917 * **didn't call elections** after assuming power citing WW1. Made the govt unpopualr * did not withdraw from war despite protest against war participation * The Bolsheviks (led by Leon Trotsky) asked for immediate reforms and withdrawal from WW1. Finally in Nov 1917, Bolsheviks overthrew the Menshevik's govt when melsheviks asked for their help to fight the Kornilov's military coup (Kornilov's affair). * The Bolsheviks defeated the Kornilov's attempted coup. Then emboldened by Lenin's return from Europe, Bolsheviks overtook all te key buildings of St. petersburg on 24th-245th October. Thus they gained power in the **bloodless coup**

Answer 106

1. **Dual power system** in Russia: Soviets held the real power as they were the ones with mass popularity 2. The **Provisional Government shared Kadet views**. The Kadets began to be seen as a conservative political party and as "state-minded" by other Russians. 3. **Failure to withdraw from war and introduce land reforms** (citing involvement in war) 4. The Soviet also gained support from Social Revolutionists and Mensheviks when the two groups realized that they did not want to support the Provisional Government. 5. there were still very heavy military losses on the front; dissatisfied soldiers deserted in larger numbers than before. People still suffered from poverty and hunger 6. **Vladimir Lenin**, exiled in Switzerland, returned.He immediately began to undermine the provisional government, issuing his April Theses the next month. These theses were in favor of "**Revolutionary defeatism**", which argues that the real enemy is those who send the proletariat into war, as opposed to the "imperialist war"and the socail chauvinists who supported the war. Lenin also tried to take control of the Bolshevik movement and attempted to win proletariat support by the use of slogans such as "**Peace, bread and land**", "End the war without annexations or indemnities", "All power to the Soviet" and "All land to those who work it" 7. **Kornilov Affair**: when Alexander Kerensky tried to use mlitary power under General Kornilov to suppress protests, the latter attempted a coup. Kerensky succeded in defeating the coup with the help of Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and Socialist revolutionaries, led by Trotsky. This further weakened the authority of the provisional govt. 8. **On 23rd Oct, the Petrograd Soviet, led by Trotsky, voted to back a military uprising**. On 25th oct, Bolshevik Red Guards forces began the occupation of government buildings and Winter palace (seat of Provisional Govt located in Petrograd) was captured soon. Thus a **bloodless change of Regime was effected.** 9. As the Revolution was not universally recognized, the country descended into **civil war**, which would last until 1923 and ultimately lead to the creation of the Soviet Union in late 1922.

Answer 107

1917-1923 1. The two largest combatant groups were the **Red Army**, fighting for the **Bolshevik** form of socialism led by Vladimir **Lenin**, and the **loosely allied forces known as the White Army**, which included diverse interests favouring **political monarchism**, **capitalism** and **social democracy**. In addition, **rival militant socialists**, notably **Makhnovia anarchists** and Left SRs, as well as **non-ideological Green armies**, opposed the Reds, the Whites and foreign interventionists 2. foreign nations also intervened. Allied powers intervened to re-establish their Eastern Front, while Centralpowers intervened to retain the territory they ha dreceived in the treaty of BrestLitovsk

Answer 108

Socio- Political 1. Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). 2. They banned the use of the old titles of aristocracy. 3. To assert the change, new uniforms were designed for the army and officials. Soviet hat-*budeonovka-* was chosen. 4. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain majority support. In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly. He thought the All Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic than an assembly elected in uncertain conditions. In the years that followed, the Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state 5. Treaty of Brest Litovsk: Russia opted out of war. Russia was deprived of the entire Ukraine, the Baltic provinces, finland, and other territory that Russia had spent 300 yrs to acquire.On third of Russia's population was gone, 80% of iron and 90% of its coal. 6. Trade unions were kept under party control. 7. The secret police, *Cheka,* punished those who criticised the Bolsheviks. This was called RED TERROR Economic- War communism 1. Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industry and banks were nationalised in November 1917. 2. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. Landed estates were confiscated and distributed to peasants. But all that the peasants produced beyongd their minimum essential requirements was appropriated by the govt to feed the rest of the population 3. Almost nothing could be bought and sold. All thatw as produced in industries was distributed to workers and others to meet their essential requirements in liew of wages. 4. In cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.

Answer 109

1. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918: There was outcry against this, especialy among the army. These army officers, combined with Tsarists, Liberals, Social revolutionaries and Mensheviks formed the white army. Further, it caused a breach between the Bolsheviks (Communists) and the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, who thereupon left the coalition. 2. disillusionment with Bolsheviks due to 1. their censorship- *cheka* 2. dissolution of assembly by Lenin 3. proclamation of 'Red Terror' by the Bolsheviks 3. When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army began to break up. Soldiers, mostly peasants, wished to go home for the redistribution and deserted. 4. Bolsheviks did not control all of Russia. During 1918 and 1919, the Greens (Socialist Revolutionaries) and Whites (pro-Tsarists) controlled most of the Russian empire 5. Foreign interventions: Whites and Greens were backed by French, American, British and Japanese troops ñ all those forces who were worried at the growth of socialism in Russia 6. Czech legion: It composed of Czech and Slovak deserters from the Austro-Hungarian army, whom previous Russian governments had allowed to form their own units. In March 1918 the Bolshevik government agreed to let these units leave Russia by the Far East, but in May violent incidents took place during the evacuation and when Trotsky ordered them to disarm, they refused and opened a front against the bolsheviks

Answer 110

1. Leadership of the Reds * Throughout the Civil War, Lenin provided the energy and drive needed to inspire success, while Trotsky provided the organisation and charisma. * Trotsky, made commissar for war, was a brilliant organiser and improviser * He didn't hesitate to employ ex-Tsarist officers thus employing their expertise * Political commissars were drafted into army units to spread socialist ideas and maintain loyalty to the Bolsheviks. * Conscription was established, hundreds of thousands of peasants were drafted into the Red Army. almost 3mn men in arms, outnumbering the whites vy 10 to 1 * Trotsky travelled in an armoured train to the front lines to encourage troops. At times of crisis, he readily assumed personal command of areas under threat. He successfully inspired and encouraged troops to greater efforts 2. Nationalisation of industries and farming: "War communism" was introduced to help supply the war effort. In May 1918 a Food Dictatorship was established where the Bolsheviks requisitioned grain from the peasants. Bolsheviks had total control of goods production. 3. Geographical advantage: At the start of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks controlled the key central area of Russia between Petrograd and Moscow. * This gave them a number of advantages. Most of Russia's railways were in this area. This made communication between the various battlefronts much easier. * The large population of the major cities was a key resource for the Bolsheviks. The cities provided fresh recruitment for the Red Army. * Much of Russia's industry and raw materials was located in this area. This made it possible for the Bolsheviks to keep their troops supplied and equipped with weapons, ammunition and supplies. * The sheer size of Russia worked against the White Armies. They had to move their forces and supplies over huge distances. This made it difficult to maintain effective control. 4. Propaganda: 1. Agitprop (agitation propaganda) was used to encourage soldiers. 2. Speeches, newspapers, and leaflets continually told the people that, through the Soviets, they were in charge of Russia. 3. Propaganda told the people that living conditions would improve and wealth would be distributed more fairly. In contrast they warned that the White Armies and their leaders would destroy all the achievements of the Revolution, break up the Soviets and bring back the old system 4. Bolsheviks portrayed themselves as a patriotic party who would defend Russia from imperialists. This was particularly effective since the Whites had support from Britain, France and the USA. 5. Leadership of Whites: divided leadership. no one person was in charge of the White forces. All wanted glory for themselves. While trying to defeat the Reds, they were also often in competition with each other. They were all ambitious men and each was determined to take control of Russia for himself. 6. Brutailty and corruption of white armies: White Army forces often behaved with great brutality and cruelty in the areas they controlled. Towns were burned, property destroyed or stolen, and crops and livestock were taken by force. A black market was created for goods originally intended to help fight the war. Inevitably, White forces were hated and feared. 7. Morale: Bolsheviks were fighting for a very definite cause - the establishment and survival of a communist Russia. The Whites, however, had problems motivating their troops and building up support. Moreover, some Russians feared that foreign intervention would bring an end to Russian independence in the event of White victory. As time passed, more and more soldiers deserted from the White Armies. 8. Limited impact of foreign intervention: With the threat of Germany gone, Britain, France and the USA did not feel the need to supply Russia. Plus, foreign powers lacked resources or troops to spare. By the end of 1919 most foreign troops had left Russia. But the Reds used the idea of foreign support for the White armies as propaganda.

Answer 111

1. By the end of civil war, Bolsheevikds had established their control over almost all territories of former Russian empire except Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland and territories within the new formed state of Poland 2. enormous cost of human lives and suffering: \>8mn (4X that in 1st WW) 1. killed in Red terror 2. in military action 3. in White anti-Jewish pogroms 4. died from starvation 5. perisshed in typhoid epidemics 3. economy was in ruins and Ruble was worth only 1% of itsvalue in 1917 4. At the end of war important c hanges had taken place in the communist regime 1. economically, it became more centralized- war communism and nationalization of industries 2. politically regime became militarized and even brutalized

Answer 112

* It was a campaign of political repression and executions carried out by the Bolsheviks, chiefly through the Cheka * It started in late August 1918 after the beginning of the Russian Civil War and lasted until 1922. * Arising after assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin, the Red Terror was modeled on the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution * sought to eliminate political dissent, opposition, and any other threat to Bolshevik power. * total casualties vary from 50000 to 150000 * Bolsheviks referred to any anti-Bolshevik factions as Whites, regardless of whether those factions actually supported the White movement cause. * Bolshevik newspapers were especially integral to instigating an escalation in state violence * Among the victims of the Red Terror were tsarists, liberals, non-Bolshevik socialists, members of the clergy, ordinary criminals, counter-revolutionaries, and other political dissidents. Later, industrial workers who failed to meet production quotas were also targeted

Answer 113

1. end of monarchy: no divine rights 2. Since the beginning of human civilisation, state in whatever its form was used to maintain the system of inequality and exploitation. Russian obj of ending inequality was the first such attempt. 3. Russia became the first communist country * first time actualization of Marxism * communism ideas came into practice * communism spread to the rest of the world as well 4. nationalisation of resources- a new economic model 1. Russia became a command economy 2. abolitio of pvt property 3. land reforms, concept of collective farming 4. This pushed Russia towards civil war 5. Russia became a secular state: role of church in politics abolished 6. Russia gave, for the first time in the history of the world, social and economic equality to the people * France and USA had only limited equality 7. Russia gave up its colonies and withdrew frm WW1

Answer 114

On January 8, 1918, President Wilson, in his address to a joint session of the United States Congress, formulated under 14 separate heads his ideas of the essential nature of a post-World War I settlement. 1. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but open diplomacy 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war 3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace 4. Disarmament by all nations except needed for national safety 5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely **impartial adjustment of all colonial claims (not *application of principle of national self-determination*)** based on equal criterias of interest of the population considered and the claims of the govt 6. evacuation of all Russian territory and allowing Russia to make an independent determination of her own political development and national policy 7. Belgium must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys 8. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored. Alsace and Lorraine must be returned back to France 9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. 10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development. 11. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel 12. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities should be allowed an opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships 13. An independent Polish state should be erected. It should be assured a free and secure access to the sea 14. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

Answer 115

Issues in the very origin of the proposals itself: * no principle of self-determination applied wrt colonies * no secret dealings: As Russia later revealed, Britain sought the division of influence in Iran with Russia according to the secret agreement she had in place. Also while dealing with Turkey, britain and France acted ina accordance with their secret agreemnt about dividing Arab states among themselves. Further Britain and France allowed Fascism forces to fester so as to combat communism * freedom of trade: during the economic depression, almost all the countries placed restrictions on imports. * disarmament: France sought to become the dominant power in Europe and strengthened her military. Further, Germany under Hitler also declared herself free of all restraints on militarization in 1936 * adjustment of colonial claims: Italy was peeved with her 'mutilated victory' and led to disuntlement amongst the people thatw as taken advantage of by Mussolini. German territories were divided among the victors * Giving away Alsace -Lorraine to France crippled German economy so much so that it even defaulted on payment of indemnity. It also acted as a thorn in German psyche * Austria-Hungary: no one batted an eyelid when Austria was annexed by Germany * countries of the world did not become more democratic in spite of collape of four imperial dynasties. In many European countries, dictatorial regimes came into power. * A number of new nations cropped up in Europe, but nt entirely based on the principle of nationality. * inter-imperialist conflicts within Europe did nt end * socio-economic inequalities was not addressed and continued as before or rather became starker * Utter failure of League of Nations. USA itself did not join. The weakness of LoN in face of belligerence by states like Germany and Italy completely eroded its viability

Answer 116

in Jan 1919, to draft a peace treaty with Germany * led by Woodrow Wilson, Lloyd George and George Clemenceau * Wilson had promised that "there shall be no annexations, no contributions, no punitive damages". This was completely violated. * Germany was given the choice between signing it ir face invasion. Thus it is termed as '**dictated peace**' * Germany was forced to accept 'war guilt' * also provided fr trials of Germans accused of committing war crimes, including the german emperor * framers of the treaty were guided by the various secret treaties signed between them, as revealed by Russia, shattering the illusion that the allied forces fought for peace and democracy * One of the first acts of the conference was creatio of LoN * CHina had been one of the allies in the war and was even represented at the conference. But her territories, formerly under German conrol, were given away to Japan

Answer 117

* created at the Paris Peace conference, based on the lasst point of Wilson's 14 points. * Primary obj: promotion of international peace, cooperation and security * three imp articles of the covenant of LoN * Art VIII: peace requires reduction of national armaments * Art X: respect and preserve , against external aggression, the territorial integrity and political independence of all member nations. * Art XVI: if any member resorts to war, it shall be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other members as well and other members would sever all trade or financial relations with that country and may also use collective use of armed forces, on advice of the League. * Also created Permanent Court of International Arbitration aka World Court, and ILO

Answer 118

signed in June 1919 1. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to france 2. the newly created state of Poland was provided with access to sea by giving her aabout 65 km of corridor which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Danzig was made a free city, under political control of LoN and economic control of pOland 3. Belgium, Lithuania and Denmark also gained territories from Germany 4. Saar coaal mining area was brought under control of LoN fr 15 yrs, while the mines in the area were transferred to France as compensation 5. Germany was debarred from uniting or politically associating with Austria 6. Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized and occupied by Allied forces for 15 yrs 7. strength of German army was fixed at 100000; she was not to have any air force and submarines and limited no. of naval sjips 8. having been forced to admit her 'war guilt', she was required to pay reparations to allies- amounted to total 6.6 Bn Pounds 9. Germany was deprived of all her colonial possessions and divided among the victorious powers 1. most of German east Africa went to Britain; some went to Portugal and Belgian Congo 2. Cameroons and Togoland were divided betn Britain and France 3. Rwanda-Urundi was habded over to Belgium 4. SW Africa to South Africa 5. apcific islands were divided among Australia, new Zealand and Japan. 6. Japan also acquired Shantung

Answer 119

the colonies of Central powers were not formally annexed by the Allied powers. The covenant of LoN provided for a system of 'Mandates' these colonies and territories were inhabited by people nt yet able to stand by themselves in the modern world and their well-being and development is a sacred trust of the civilization these colonies were placed under'tutelage' of 'advanced nations'. And which advanced nation will tutor which colony will be decided by them amogst themselves, without any interference of LoN

Answer 120

Treaty of St. Germain, signed in Sept 1919 recognised independence of Hungary, Poland, Czechslovakia and Yugoslavia. ceded territories to these countries and to Italy Austria was reduced to a small state debarred from any union with Germany

Answer 121

now an independent state ceded territories to Czechslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania

Answer 122

ceded territories to Romania, Yugoslavia and Greece

Answer 123

* Britain and France had already divided Arab territories betn themselves in a secret agreement * Syria and lebanon- France's mandates * Iraw, Palestine and Transjordan- Britain's mandates * Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar had already come under British influence * Hejaz became a separate state (*was soon conuered by Ibn Saud, ruler of Nejd, to form Saudi Arabia*) * The dismemberment of Turkey led to a nationalist revolt, led by Mustefa Kamal. Kamal'a armies drove the Greeks and Italians, who had earlier occupied large parts of Turkey, out of Turkey. Turkey was declared a republic and began her development as a secular nation. * Allied forces were forced to sign a new treaty with Mustefa Kamal in 1923.

Answer 124

1. economic growth between 1919 to 1929 2. Great depression 3. New Deal 4. USA Foreign policy

Answer 125

1. NO battle was fought on US soil and no damage done to her cities. while European economies suffered, US's economy expanded 2. while the sudden cease in expansion of USA due to end of war created a temporary crisis marked by unemployment, factory closures and strikes, this did not last long. 3. Soon after USA experienced unprecedented growth backed by major advances in tech 4. USA emerged as major creditor nation in the world, most countries of Europe, esp Germany her debtor 5. The expansion was accompanies by concentration of power in hands of select big companies eg. General Motors. This led to increased corruption 6. economic growth did not proportionate benefit to workers. They lived in poverty and misery and a strong trade union movement was not allowed to develop

Answer 126

began with the crash in Oct 1929 cause: * while economy expanded the condition of majority remained poor. 5-7% of non-agri pop was unemployed throughout 1920s. More than hald of American families lived on knife's edge of poverty * fundamental maldistribution of purchasing power: despite increase in production, there were not many people who had the means to buy the products. 1/3rd of all personal income went to 5% pop * when prices of shares began to fall, people panicked and began selling their shares further pulling down the market. Led to collapse of stock market * failure of banks- 5700 banks failed betn 1929 and 1932. This wiped off savings of millions of Americans further harming the purchasing power * Industries could not get loans from banks and the goods they produced were not being bought. Led to closure of industries and laying off of workers. * This further reduced spending power and the cycle continued * price of agri products fell and farmers lost their lands stats: no. of unemployed increased from 1.5mn in 1929 to 13 mn in 1932- over 25% of US workforce

Answer 127

It is the domestic programme of Roosevelt adminitsration to recover from the Great depression 1. took action to bring about **immediate economic relief as well as reforms** in industry, agriculture, finance, waterpower, labour, and housing, vastly increasing the scope of the federal government’s activities. 2. Opposed to the traditional American political philosophy of laissez-faire, the New Deal generally **embraced the concept of a government-regulated economy** aimed at achieving a balance between conflicting economic interests. New deal was a program of **massive fiscal expansion** of the government 3. **WPA and CCC were set up give employment to youth**- emergency and short-term governmental aid and to provide temporary jobs, **employment on construction projects, and youth work in the national forests.** 4. It also **produced more than 650,000 miles of roads, 125,000 public buildings, 75,000 bridges, and 8,000 parks. Tennessee Valley authority** was created to undertake large-scale construction work 5. To **revive industrial activity, the National Recovery Administration (NRA)** was granted authority to help **shape industrial codes governing trade practices, wages, hours,** child labour, and collective bargaining. 6. The New Deal **also tried to regulate the nation’s financial hierarchy in order to avoid a repetition of the stock market crash of 1929** and the massive bank failures that followed. **Security exchange Act was implemented. Securities and Exchange Commission was also established** to regulate US stock markets. 7. **attempted to raise prices by controlling the production of staple crops through cash subsidies to farmers.** 8. **Social security programs** like Health Insurance unemployment benefits was started. This public expenditure gave assurance to the people 9. **Interest rates were lowered and easy monetary policy** was followed. Federal Reserve Bank increase liquidity through loans to increase demand in the economy 10. **Banking reforms**: banks separated from risky investment banking activities by the passage of the **Glass steagall act**. To increase deposit is confidence and protect their accounts **Federal deposit Insurance Corporation was established**. Deposit insurance was started by the state to ensure the depositors

Answer 128

refused to join LoN became the sole creditor to most of Europe; helped in economic recovery of Europe but increased dependence of Europe on America led to spread of Great depression to Europe refused to recognize USSR govt for 16 yrs

Answer 129

Apprehensive of Japanese ambitions in china, signed a treaty in 1922 with Japan, britain, France and Italy aimed at ensuring Open door in China so that no one country established exclusive control over CHina also imposed some restrictions on Japans's naval strength refused to interfere in Japan's aggressive policies in 1930s

Answer 130

1. withdrew troops from Nicaragua in 1933 after the Puppet govt installed with help of US troops was usurped by popular rebellion led by Augusto sandino 2. Latin America also greatly affected by US restrictions on imports in wake of Great depression 3. from 1920s, US relied on 'dollar diplomacy' by increasing investments in Latin america and controlling their economy rather than military interference. This is described as 'Good Neighbour policy' (under Roosevelt) 4. US anulled Platt amendment which gave her the self-assumed right to send troops to Cuba 5. She withdrew her troops from Panama except from Panama canal zone

Answer 131

1. Decrees on Peace and Land 2. Declaration of Rights of People of Russia: announced end of oppression of non-Russian nationalities of Russian empire, proclaimed right of all nationalities to self-determination, equality and sovereignty 3. All the secret treaties signed by Czar were annulled 4. In Jan 1918, Russia was proclaimed as Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) 5. Any political activity other than the communist party's was already banned earlier. In 1921, Lenin banned 'factionalism' within the Party. However, this simply meant that no Bolshevik could deviate from the party line once the decision was made. But before that, all could present their opinions openly. At many instances, there were open oppositions to Lenin'd ideas itself

Answer 132

1. Measures adopted under the War commission were withdrawn 2. Peasants control over their produce was restored, salaries were paid in cash, trade in good was restored and efforts were made to rehabilitate the economy 3. In some industries, pvt mgmt wass introduced; many small industries were allowed in pvt hands 4. Large no. of cooperatives were set up 5. During the 1921 famine, nation wide effort was launched to provide relief Lenin vigorously defended NEP. He said that they had to take into account the fact that instead of introducing socialism in a country dominated by industrial workers - the true allies of the bolsheviks - they were working in a backward, peasant dominated society. Therefore NEP was not a retreat - it was an attempt to find an alternative route to socialism in less than ideal circumstances. It would require a long campaign educating the peasants in the benefits of agrarian cooperatives.

Answer 133

1. remained in force till 1928 when planned economic development was launched through successive five year plans 2. Help the economy to recover to the pre war level and laid the foundation for the development 3. By the start of Second World War, USSR was a strong industrial lies in military power. No other country had industrialisation herself as fast as the USSR 4. This was all done along with the social legislation-8 hr working day, two weeks' holiday with pay, sick and unemployment pay and healthcare 5. The USSR was the only country to escape the effects of the Great Depression However, * unemployment was higher than before * frequent food shortages persisted

Answer 134

According to the new constitution proclaimed in 1924, all the SOviet Republics such as RSFSR, Georgian, Armenian, Turkmen, Ukrainian, azerbaijan, Caucassian etc. were brought under one union- USSR. USSR was reorganized under the new 1936 constitution under 11 Republics, on the basis of nationality and equality of all nationalities. Under thsia rrangement they were even free to secede from the union. Each nationality was given rights to promote its own language and culture

Answer 135

1. born to poor peasants 2. gained power in Bolsheviks party owing to his administartive and fund raising abilities 3. When the soviet govt was established, he was made the secreatey-general of Party appointments, a seemingly weak position but he used it to gather his own supporters 4. Though Trosky was the supposed successor of Lenin, Stalin got the job because * Torotsky's brilliance led to envy within the party * other major players saw Stalin as a nobody and underestimated him * Stalin used his position cleverly

Answer 136

1. Deeming NEP as a temporary measure, Stalin sought to nationalise and centralize the industries. FYP were introduced with 1st one starting in 1929 and 2nd in 1934. 1st Plan concentrated on heavy industries, later ones also included consumer goods. The plans were remarkably successful. 2. Hundreds of new factories were established, many in new towns east of Ural where they could be safe from invasion 3. Collectivization of agriculture- * Small Farms and Holdings merged to form large collective farms- ***kolkhoz***- jointly owned by peasants. This achieved dual objectives- larger farms, under state direction, used tractors and harvesters, to vastly increased grain production, and eliminated the class of prosperous peasants- ***kulaks***- which NEP had encouraged. * This was met by heavy resistance in the countryside. *Kulaks* often reacted by slaughtering cattle and burning crops rather than allowed the state to take them. State reacted by brutal repression. When newly collectivist peasants try to sabotage the system by producing only enough for their own needs, local officials insisted on seizing the required quotas. In this way well over 90% of all farm land had been collectivized by 1937 * did not prov to be much successful * so may animals had been slaughtered that finaly in 1953, livestock pop matched that in 1928 * best producers- kulaks- were excluded from collective farms. party activists in charge were not good in farming * many peasants were demoralized after seizure of their land and property and in stead left for cities * slaughter of horses caused serious ploughing issues early on as not enough tractors wee provided * Finally led to famine i 1932-33 * However, the grain export increased more than ever before- earning foreign exchange that was used to set up industries. 4. One of the greatest achievements of Stalinist regime was expansion of free Mass education. In 1917 under half the population was literate. By1939, of all the people aged between 9 and 49, 94% in towns in 86% in rural areas were literate

Answer 137

1. The Purge and the Great Terror 1. using assassination of Kirov in 1934, Stalin launched repression against everyone suspected of slightest disloyalty 2. even the more modest estimates put the total executed and sent to labor camps at \>3mn in 1937-38 alone 3. all the old bolsheviks were executed. Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico in1940 4. many of the best brains in the govt and in industry had disappeared which hampered progress 5. purge in army disrupted USSR's defense policies 2. new constitution of 1936 1. electorate was though expanded, there was only one candidate to vote for in each constituency- of Communist party 2. Stalin-led Politburo accumulated and legitized power 3. mentioned universal HUman rights including feedom of speech, thought, press and religion- anybody who dared to act was purged 3. Though the non-Russian republics wee allowed to preserve and encourage their culture and languages and were granted certain amt of independence (unlike the Russiaziation under Tsarist regime), it was clearly understood that moscow had the final say in all important decisions and she was ready was to use Force to keep the empire together.

Answer 138

1. While Lenin had launched a savage back on the Orthodox Church, seizing all it lands, schools and Church buildings. After his death the Regime became more tolerant towards religious group. However during stalin's rule, many priest sympathized with kulaks, and so hundreds of churches and priests were attacked and killed. For the Bolsheviks, communism was the only religion, and they were determined that people should worship the communist state instead of God. 2. The year 1928 to 1931 became known as a cultural revolution when the Regime began to mobilize writer, artists and musicians to visit cultural war against bourgeoisie intellectual. Writers who did not succeed in producing the right kind of socialist realism ran the risk of arrest. At least 600 writers had perished in prisons or labour camps during stalin's rule

Answer 139

1. Russia had been kept out of the **paris Peace Conference** and was not one of the founding member of **LoN** 2. In 1921 she entered into **treaties with Iran and Afghanistan and Turkey**, under Mustefa Kamal, which strengthened the Independence and sovereignty of these countries. 3. She participated in various **disarmament** conferences and made proposal for general and complete disarmament 4. In the 1930 she took a **forth right stand against the Fascist countries**' acts of aggression and called for United action. Western powers however chose appeasement. 5. She was also the only major power at that time which **opposed the continuance of Colonialism and imperialism**. She came to be looked upon as a **friend of the people who are fighting for their Independence** 6. With the outbreak of the war the 2nd International had collapsed. 1919 in a conference held in Moscow, the representatives of communist parties of 30 countries formed the **communist International (ComIntern) are the Third International.** 7. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was their model and the **Russian revolution was looked upon as the model of a socialist revolution**. Because of this close Association all communist parties around the world were often viewed by others with suspicion. The comintern with headquarters in Moscow was **seen as an instrument of Soviet foreign policy** 8. While the formation of the communist parties on the pattern of the Soviet Communist Party and the comintern work claim to string then the movement for socialism, it in fact, **led to a permanent division of the socialist movement.** The communist parties and the various socialist and social democratic parties begin to view Each Other as enemies 9. had an important role in China-s integration as well- refer China flashcard

Answer 140

1. Japanese indsutrial expansion took place with the help of **extreme exploitation of workers** 2. industry and banks were under control of ***zaibatsu**,* a small grpof money cliques, with close links with govt. 3. **living conditions of workers and farmers were miserable** 4. most farmers had **extremely small land holdings** ~1acre; a large no. of them worked as **tenants** 5. Japanese agriculture was unable to abosrb its growing population as well as meet its food requirements. '**Rice mutinies**' throughout Japan in 1919 over high price of Rice. factories, rice shops were burnt 6. In **1920s, trade unions** began to gains trength and there were many strikes. Communist and social democratic parties were also formed, which organised workers against the oppressive economic system as well as against imperialism and war. 7. In 1925, '**Peace Preservation Law**' was passed to suppress 'dangerous thoughts' that barred even academic discussions on communist viewpoints. 8. Japanese economy continued growth in these yrs and **Japan beacame biggest exporter of cotton textiles, rayon and raw silk.** 9. **Despite improvement in representative govt in 1920s**- franchise was extended to all males in 1924; however, military continued to dominate the govt. The political system that emerged in Japn in this period was '**military fascism**' 10. The dominance of military in Japanese socio-polity led to ideas of **national chauvinism, cultural superiority and ideas of maintaining purity of Japanese culture**. **Peace, socalism and democracy** were considered **foreign** ideas from which Japan had to be **protected**. **Emperor worship, imperialist expansion** were considered part of ***'national essence of Japan***'.

Answer 141

1. At the end of WW1, there were two main govts in China- one controlled by Guomindang, led by Dr. sun Yat Sen and hqr at Canton, other headed by a military general, Yuan Shih-Kai, hqr at Beijing. Also various warlords ruled remaining parts of China 2. May Fourth movement- decision of Paris Peace conference to give Shantung to Japan led to an anti-imperialist upsurge in 1919, and soon sprad to various parts 3. Impact of Russian rev- 1. 1921-Communist Party of china formed and soon became a major force 2. Dr. sun Yat-Sen sought the help of USST to unify China 3. 1924- Guomindang and Communist party came together and formed National revolutionary army, to fight against warlord and unify China 4. military academy set up with the helpof Soviet advisors 4. ops of National revolutionary army were accompanied with workers' and peasants' movements 5. 1927, split in Guomindang and the nationalist movement- fearing the growing influence of communists in Guomindang, General Chiang Kai-Shek, chief of staff of the NRA, set up his govt at Nanjing. Soviet advisors expelled. Communists were forced to scatter an brought some areas in the countryside under their control leading to commencement of civil war betn Chiang Kaishek and CPC 6. Japanese occupation of Manchuria- wave of anti-Japanese feelings but the two sides failed to unite. 7. Mao Zedong rose as a leader. He advocated peasantry as the main revolutionary force. 8. 1934- Chiang Kai Shek attacked communist held areas in south, led to 'the Long March'- 100000 communists moved to Yenan in NW China by covering a distance of 12000 km. Added to their nationwide popularity. On way, they seized lands of landlords and distributed them among peasants.

Answer 142

1. they seized lands of landlords and distributed them among peasants 2. The long march 3. always called for a united frot against the Japanese, while Chaing Kai-shek was more proactive against the communists than against the Japanese 4. growth of peasants' and workers' movements 5. Mao Zedong- saw peasants as the true revolutionary force

Answer 143

1. movement for independence from Japan became powerful as soon as end of WW1, aided by Russian rev that helped in spread of anti-imperialist ideas 2. 1918- Korean nationalists drafted a declaration of independence- soon demonstartions and country-wide uprising, bt was finally suppressed. 3. The peasants' revolts and workers' strikes persisted 4. Koreans also organized anti-Japanese armed actions in Manchuria after its occupation by Japan in 1931 5. Japan used Korea as a base for her military ops against china, USSR and other countries of Asia

Answer 144

1. under US' colonial rule, was reduced to an economic appendage: 80% of exports, mainly sugar, coconut and tobacco, was to US while 70% of import was from USA. 2. pattern of dev similar to may Latin american countries i.e. 1. production of a few crops, mainly fr export to the colonial country 2. land owned by big landlords 3. peasant unrest gave ris to radical political mov. to end colonial as well as feudal rule 4. 1935- autonomy was granted with the promise of independence after 10 yrs

Answer 145

Vietnam, Laos, cambodia 1. Ngyuen ai Quoc emerged as the leader, later cme to be known as Ho chi Minh 2. soldiers sent to france in WW1, came in contact with socialists and other radicals. Ho Chi Minh was actively associated with formation of Communist Party in France. 3. In 1925, he set up the Revolutionary Youth League of Vietnam. 4. 1930- various communists grps came together to form Vietnamese Communist Party- later renamed as communist party of INdo-China, This party led the struggle for independence against French rule.

Answer 146

Dutch East Indies 1. workers' and peasants' organizations emerged in early 20th cent eg. Indies' Social democratic Association 2. 1920- Communist party of INdonesia formed- organized uprisings in Java and Sumatra. 3. 1927- Natioalist Party formed under Ahmed sukarno, later President of INdependent Indonesia. This party brought together other organizations and led the struggle for independence. It adopted the objective of establishing socialism after independence. Dutch replied with repressions and banning all political discussions

Answer 147

1. separated from British's Indian empire in 1937 2. nationalist movements had started emerging in early yrs of 20th cent with formation of Young Men's Buddhist Association in 1906. 3. Indian struggle influenced the Burmese struggle: leaders of both movements developed close contacts 4. 1921- General council of Burmese Association set up and like INC to raise demand for self-governance 5. 1930s- *Thakins,* an org set up by youths, set up and demanded complete independence. Most prominent leader was aung san, who later led Burmese Communist Party. 6. Constitution reforms similar to GoI Act of 1935 were introduced in Burma after her separation, bt failed to satisfy the Burmese nationalists. led to mass anti-British upsurge and marches and strikes all over the country

Answer 148

1. variety of states- some unuder direct British admin, while others enjoyed some autonomy under local rulers 2. exploited by British mainly for rubber and tin 3. plantations and mines owned by British 4. singapore crucial wrt commerical and strategic viewpoint 5. large bt many ethnic population- incl Indians and CHinese; each had their own political associations. British exploited differences among them to prevent rise of a united national movement

Answer 149

1. Sinhalese, Tamils and plantation workers of INdian origin 2. some constitutional changes introduced which gave upper sections of society some share in admin 3. 1931- new consti- adult franchise was introduced and an assembly was created- led to creation of a generation of political leaders who led the political struggle for independence

Answer 150

1. Amanullah Khan declared independence of Afghanistan- helped by USSR 2. took some steps to modernize the country 3. 1929- he was overthrown by Muhammed Nadir Shah who became the king. a new consti was introduced aimed at making Aghanistan a constitutional monarchy

Answer 151

1. Russia had renounced the Anglo-russian agreement of 1907 to divide Iran into spheres of influence. British concerned over their oil interests threatened to occupy the whole country 2. 1919- agreement signed with British that established British control over army and economy of iran 3. led to anti-British uprisings and rebellions and finally pro-british govt was overthrown in 1921 with the help of Reza khan, an army officer. the new govt anulled 1919 agreement 4. 1925- Iranian constituent assembly called *Majilis* deposed the ruler of Iran and amde Reza Khan the Shah of Iran. Marked the start of Pahalavi dynasty. 5. many steps for modernization of Iran were taken. Industry and transport was developed; modern education was introduced; religious interference was curbed; reforms were made in legal systems; larger shares of profit from oil trade now went to Iran. However, all in all Shah's rule was tyrannical and brought few benefits to the comon people

Answer 152

had been given as mandates to britain Iraq: 1. installed Faisal as King bt retained with them the ultimate military, political and economic control including the rich oil resources 2. 1930: Iraq granted full independence, bt British hold on her economy remianed. Iraq had become a constituttional monarchy with pro-British govt 3. 1936- the pro-british govt was overthrown by National reform Party with the help of a section of the army; they introduced reforms and build Iraq's economy 4. 1937-the govt was overthrown and replaced by pro-British Nuri Said Palestine and Transjordan 1. installed Faisal's brother Abdullah as king 2. 1928- granted independence while retaining military and financial control. But the strengthened Arab nationalism in the area led to revolts against the British control 3. in late 19th century, Zionism started as a movement in Europe to secure for Jews a home i Palestine. british had promised the same to Zionist leaders during the WW1. 4. massive migration of Jews from west. population of Jews in Palestine increased from \>50000 in 1919 to 960000 in 1934. 5. In 1937, a British Royal commission recommended partition of Palestine into three states- under Arab, under Jews and under British control. rejected by everyone.

Answer 153

1. had become French mandates. initially Faisal (same of Iraq) was made king of Syria wih French support bt later was deposed by the French. 2. people of the region resisted the French occupation and rebelled most famously in 1925 3. 1936- govt changed in France and they promised independence to Syria nd Lebanon after 3 yrs bt later they went back on their promise

Answer 154

1. at the end of WW1, ~50 states in Africa of which only Liberia and Ethiopia were independent 2. interwar yrs saw a reduction in the direct struggle against the colonial powers- thus this period is referred as the 'golden age of colonialism in Africa'. Though this peace was only at the surface level. 3. main highlights: 1. egypt 2. Morocco 3. Southern Africa 4. Pan-African movement 5. South AFrica 4. the anti-imperialist movements which had their origin in Europe also promoted Nationalist movements in Africa

Answer 155

1. 1918- An organisation called Wafd led the struggle, led by Saad Zaghlul Pasha 2. 1922- British govt was forced to end her protectorate over Egypt and Ahmed Faud was made the king of the independent Egyptiam kingdom. 1923 saw the new constitution in force giving Egypt a parliamentary system. british forces however continued to remain in Egypt in the name of defence of 'Egypt and the canal' 3. The govt formed by Wafd demanded complete independence. In repsone the king dissolved the Parliament. this happened 4 times in 6 yrs. 4. 1930- new constitution which increased powers of king and reduced that of the parliament. Led to widespread protest and finally the 1923 constitution was restored in 1935. Wafd party again came into power and fainlly signed a treaty with the British to reomve their forces except 10000 for the security of the canal.

Answer 156

1921- Rif tribes of Morocco rebelled undr the leadership of Abdel Karim; defeated the Spanish troops and proclaimed the Rifian Republican nation. In response joint Franco-Spanish army was sent and finally by 1927, Spain and France were again the masters of their respective parts i Morocco. Though failed, the Rif rebellion became a source of inspiration for anti colonial struggles throughout Africa.

Answer 157

1. growth of nationalist movement was uneven. states created in southern Africa were new states and peple inhabiting these states did not necessarily shared a common past, and thus feeling of national identity took some time to develop. This growth of national identity was the main development in inter-war yrs 2. formation of trade unions and other organisations, ususally having an anti-colonial character. 3. Intelligentsia played an important role i arousing political consciousness. Educational facilities is Southern Africa were kept extremely limited and even secondary education was discouraged, viewing them as a threat to colonial rule, as they saw from the experience of British in India. However, some africans did receive eduation (to aid the local admin) and they felt the discrimination. Further, many went to developed countries for higher studies and came into contact with revolutionary and democratic ideas and movements- * Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya * Nnamdi Azikiwe- later became the first President of Nigeria * Kwame nkrumah of Gold coasst (Ghana) * Leopold Senghor of Senegal 4. In countries where some representative institutions were set up, PPs came up eg. * national Democratic Party of Nigeria * Young Kikuyu assocaition * Gold coast Youth conference * League of Rights of Man and Citizenship * Liga African in angola

Answer 158

1. Many leaders of Black equality movements across the world, especially in USA, advocated for the unity and solidarity of all Black people. 2. WEB Du Bois of USA, who led the effort to organize the National association for Advancement of Colored People in USA, convened the first Pand African Congress in Paris in 1919, during the Paris Peace Conference 3. The congress passed resolutions demanding equal political rights for black people in USA and other parts of the world and the right for self-determination for the African people. 4. The congresswas again held in 1921, 1923 and 1927 in different capital cities of Europe to bring together Black intellectuals from Africa, USa and teh Carribean. 5. Another Pan Africanist movement was initiated by Marcus Garvey. In 1914, he had set up an org called Universla Negro Improvement Asssocaiation, He campaigned fro Blck Americans to emigrate to Africa and played a important role in developing a sense of pride among the Black people

Answer 159

* It was the cultural movement that emerged in 1920s-1930s which promoted the sense of identity and Pride among the black people and rejection of white in:ial domination. * It was based on Affirmation of black culture the beauty of African art and music a Belief in a common cultural heritage among all African and African descended people * Some of the prominent figures in this movement were * Aime Cesaire of martinique, a French colony in the Carribean * Leopold Sedar Senghor of Senegal (later became the Preisdent of Senegal) * langston Hughes of USA * Claude McKay of USA

Answer 160

was a transnational anti-imperialist organization formed in 1927 in an International Congrss held in Brussels It was significant because it brought together representatives and organizations from the communist world and anti-colonial organizations and activists from the colonized world. The Congress aimed at creating a "mass anti-imperialist movement" at a world scale, and is often regarded as a front organization of the Comintern. They included delegates from Egypt Kenya and South Africa. Among them was jomo kenyatta and La Guma. Jawaharlal Nehru represented the Indian National Congress at this Congress

Answer 161

1. 1910- british colonies, natal and Cape colony, and the Boer States, orange free state and Transvaal had been brought together as a self-governing state- called the union of South Africa- of the British Empire 2. At the end of first world war the white population of South Africa was about 20% of the total population. The whites comprise people of British origin and Boers who were of Dutch origin. 3. The government was completely in the hands of the whites 4. 1912- the African National Congress was formed and played the leading role in The Struggle against racial oppression in South Africa. The Communist Party of South Africa was formed in 1921 5. the Nationalist party represented the Boers or afrikaners, it was dominated by the idea of extreme white racism. Add vodka to the policy of colorbar to maintain the social and political supremacy of the whites they passed laws to exclude the black people from getting skilled jobs are getting training for skilled jobs while living in the area where the whites lived. They were asked to move to areas called the tribal Reserve and were required to seek permission to work in the cities or on the farms owned by whites 6. they had to carry identity cards and passes in the cities to prove that they had been permitted to be there 7. the average wage of a white worker was about 10 times that of his African counterpart 8. the blacks were debarred from forming trade unions or joining unions of white workers 9. they had no right to vote and were completely debarred from having any say in the political life of their country 10. in the 1930s, the white racists organized Fascist movements on the model of the Nazi party of Germany

Answer 162

1. regimes continued to be dominated by big landlords and army. However, in almost every country, democratic and left wing political movements and workers and peasants' organisations cropped up. Communist parties were formed 2. Populist uprisings le dby Augusto Cesar Sandino against the puppet govt in Nicaragua, installed with the help of US troops. finally US troops withdrawn in 1933. Although Sandino was assassinated and dictatorship was established by Anastasio Somoza, Sandino became an inspirational figure in latin America. 3. economic crisis of 1929: most Latin American countries heavily dependent on exports and thus faced serious crisis. widespread unemployment. 4. MExico: Many positive, radical steps introduced by Lazaro Cardenas to end the power of big landowners and build the economy. Landed estates were confiscated and distributed to peasants, nationalised the railways and other industries including the entire petroleum industry which had been owned by British and american companies. This assertion of the people over the resources of their countries served as a model for other latin american countries as well. 5. Widespread resistance against foreign interference and influence in domestic politics gained momentum in Latin American countries. All were united in their opposition to US domination of the Pan American union which had been set up on US initiative earlier. They also opposed US' claim of rights to interfere in affairs of other countries in Americas, which US formally accepted at 1933 American Union. 6. From 1920s, US relied more on 'dollar diplomacy' rather than on direct military intervention. Led to 'Good Neighbour POlicy' during Franklin D Roosevelt's presidency. US annulled Platt agreement that gave her the self assumed right to sen troops to Cuba. She withdrew her troops from Panama. However the policy of non-interference was not adhered to later on. 7. A strong front against Fascism also emerged in latin American countries. Mexico condemned Japanese aggression in Manchuria, Italian invasion and occupatio of Ethiopia and Germany's annexation of Austria. She also provided shelter to thousands of Spanish republicans after the overthrow of Spanish republic by Italy Germany and France.

Answer 163

1. 1919-1923 1. new states 2. rise of authoritarian regimes 3. Britain France and Czechslovakia 4. weimar republic- germany 5. Italy-Fascism 2. 1923-1936 1. impact of great depression 2. developments in Britain 3. France 4. Portugal and Spain 5. Nazism in germany 3. 1936-1939 1. GIJ axis 2. Spanish Civil war 3. Japanese aggression 4. Annexation of austria 5. Munich Pact- appeasement 6. Polish Question

Answer 164

Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Poland and Czechslovakia were created as indepnednet states Yugoslavia was formed by merging new territories with an already existing state. 1922: Ireland was partitioned- Irish Free state was given the dominion status (later gained independence ) while Northern ireland retained her connection to Great Britain HUngary and Austria became separate states Not all countries were happy with newly drawn boundaries especially in southern and eastern Europe and many secret ententes and agreemnets and alliances came up,

Answer 165

1. immediate post war yrs were of unrest- wave of strikes and attempts at revolutionary overthrow of existing order in many countries. russian revolution served as inspiration. eg. Bella Kun revolutionary govt set up in Hungary. Most serious outbreaks in Germany. 2. However by 1923, most of these were extinguished due to lack of unity among various socialist parties and radical grps. 3. This collapse of revolution led to strengthening of anti-democratic and authoritarian forces in many countries and by 1930s only a few countries in Europe had succeded in maintaining the democratic institutions and govts. eg. Military dictatorship was established in 1923 in Spain under General Miguel Primo de Riviera. authoritarian regimes were established in Hungary, Poland, ROmania and Yugoslavia.

Answer 166

* Apart from scandinavian countries, these were the handful few who resisted authoritarian forces 1. Britain: faced widespread unemployment 2. France: to impose her power in Europe tried to bring German resources under her control 3. Czechslovakia: newly formed state; adopted a democratic constitution; saw a period of rapid industrial growth

Answer 167

1. Weimar republic was proclaimed in 1919- established a President with amny special powers, a chancellor responsible to Parliament called reichstag, elected based on universal adult franchise and guaranteed safeguards of rights and liberties of the people. 2. discontent in germany against 'dictated peace' and many provisions of Versailles treaty 3. Social democratic party and Communist party emerged as powerful parties, latter also attempted a failed revolution in 1923 4. authoritarian forces also emerged- denounced democracy, sought revenge for Versailles humiliation, blamed the Jews and communists. supported by big business and large section of German army. Even tried to capture Berlin in 1920 *putsch,* but defeated by joint socialist and democratic forces * 1919: National Socialist German Workers' party (Nazi party) was formed. This party. led by Hitler also attempted a putsch in 1923 bt was suppressed 5. economic problems: * was incapable of making further payments of war reparations; Jan 1923, Belgian and French forces occuppied teh Ruhr valley, which was the centre of Germanys' coal and metallurgy industry in response. German workers however resiste by passive resistance and were supported by their govt as well * German economy was near collapse due to unmanageable inflation. value of Mark fell by 50X by 1921. govt srtarted printing money which further excaerbated the situation * 1923: currency reform was introduced that wiped out savings of millions of people. Millions were suddenly impoverished. * Nazi party gained the most from the disaster. * German economy began recovery with the help of US loans in 1924

Answer 168

1. immediate post war yrs- widespead unrest and unemployment 2. a violent anti-democratic movement- the fascist movement- emerged. Armed bands called *fasces* were formed to create terror among the people considered enemies of the nation- socialists, communists and leaders of workers' and peasants' movements. They were inspired by glorious past of roman empire and preached the cult of violence and war. Supported by ruling classes as force against socialism 3. disappointed with gains from WW1 4. National Fascist Party formed in 1921 under Benito Mussolini. 'Blackshirts' were recruits for the party to break up strikes and intimidate socialists and communists. Facsists however remained unpopular among the masses and did not perform very well in the elections of 1919 and 1921. 5. Fascists seized cities of Milan and Bologna by force and marched towards Rome. Govt surrendered and King invited Mussolini to form the govt. He soon disbanded all opposition parties and assumed dictatorial powers.

Answer 169

1. stopped the recovery period in europe; continued till 1933 2. main cause: dependence of European economies on USA 3. Germany: in 1932 there were 6mn unemplyed and half the pop impoverished 4. britain: 3mn unemployed 5. political effects: disastrous for democracies; rise of authoritarian, semi-fascist and fascist regimes in various European countries

Answer 170

1. First Labour Party govt came to power in 1924 bt stayed in power for only 10 months 2. biggest strike in british history- 'General strike'- in support of original strike by coal miners. strike however failed to accomplish its objectives 3. A fascist movement also emerged that advocated violence against Jews 4. Great depression: 3mn unemployed 5. 1931: white dominions of Britain became virtually free- British laws no longer were applicable though remained part of British commonwealth

Answer 171

1. with dreams of dominating Europe, launched a massive armament programme- occupation of Ruhr valley bt had to withdraw in 1924 2. political instability with frequently changing govts 3. during Depression, socialist and communist parties gained strength. However, a strog fascist movement arose as well. 4. In 1936, formation of the popular front comprising communist,socialist and radical socialist party to combat the danger of our facsism and bring about long needed economic reforms lie workers' welfare. It swept the subsequent polls and brought about many reforms 5. Foreign policy of France was aimed at realization of her power ambitions and safeguard herself against possible German aggression. encouraged "**Little Entente**" betn Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechslovakia. also started strong defence line against Germany- called Maginot Line. In 1935, signed a mutual aid agreemnet with Soviet union, while Soviet union signed a similar agreement with Czechslovakia, thereby forming a tripartite mutual aid pact.

Answer 172

Portugal: Salazar had established a military dictatorship in POrtugal in early 1930s. Spain: 1. 1932 revolt led by army general against the republic was crushed 2. rise of fascist movement called falange, supported by catholic church 3. 1936: the anti fascist Popular Front emerged victorious in elections; brought about many economic and political reforms. 4. Soon falange, with the help of army generals and active support fo fascist countries revolted and Spain was plunged into a civil war

Answer 173

1. Nazi ideology: * disregarded political and civil liberties as well as democracy * glorified war * wanted to revive greatness of Teutonic empire * anti-semitism: Jews responsible for defeat of Germans * purity of german race- pure blond Aryan- and considered it superior than other races * Communism viewed as the biggest enemy- got them support of ruling classes 2. organized gangs of armed volunteers called SA aka brownshirts 3. had limited popular support prior to Great depression eg. secured just 12 seats in 1928 elections. The misery of people caused them to seek hope in nazi ideology. and 1932 reichstag elections saw them emerge as largest party 4. In Jan 1933, President hindenburg was persuaded by ruling classes and industrialists to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor (also the fact that his party was the largest party in 1932 elections) 5. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to dissolve Reichstag and called another election in 1933 but fire in the reichstag building 5 days before the election saw the Nazis paint communists as responsible. Hitler soon consolidated power by the use of terror and assassination of anti-Nazis. By 1933, all other parties were dissolved and banished. In 1934, Hitler became the President of Germany

Answer 174

1. HItler began rearmament 1. violated limit of 100000 troops 2. built German airforce 2. Oct 1933: germany withdrew from LoN 3. March 1935: announced that germany was no longer bound by restrictions imposed by Treaty of Versailles and began rebuilding navy as well. 4. March 1936: Rhineland, was reoccupied by German troops

Answer 175

1. Oct 1936: Italy and Germany signed agreemnet on political cooperation. created **_Rome Berlin axis._** Though the two were cooperating on European matters even before this eg. in Spanish civil war 2. Nov 1936: Germany and Japan signed the anti-comintern pact 3. Nov 1937: Italy joined the anti-Comintern pact

Answer 176

1. 1936: Fascists organized mutinies, supported by most of Spanish army and ruling elites. Main leader of mutineers was General Francisco Franco. This front was called the Nationalists. 2. Germany and Italy actively supportedthe fascist forces with arms and ammunitions as well as troops. Britain, france and USA adopted a policy of non-intervention. only the uSSR came in support of the Republicans. 3. Spanish civil war aroused the conscience of world over. Anto fascists from 50+ countries enrolled themeselves as volunteers. An internatioal Brigade with 40000+ volunteers, incl from Italy and Germany, was formed and fought on the side of the Republicans. eg. german battalion named Thalmann, american battalion named Abraham Lincoln. JL Nehru went to Spain to express solidarity of the INdian feedom movement. writers and artists world over mobilized public opinion like Picassos's *Guernica.* 4. By Feb 1939, most of Spain fell to Ntionalist forces and Britain, USA and France recognised Franco's govt. 5. Spanish civil war is often described as the "Dress Rehearsal" of WW2 in which fasscist countries tested their new weapons in Spain

Answer 177

1. 1937: Japan launche da massive invasion on China and annexed large parts of north China in months 2. IN 1938, proclaimed "New Order in East Asia" which would bring Japan, China and Manchuria into a political union. 3. LoN condemned the aggression but nothing further

Answer 178

Alexander came to be called ‘great’ because of his stupendous military conquests which dazzled European writers and chroniclers of the ancient world. He had established, before he turned 30 years of age, the largest empire the world had seen until then, which stretched across modern western and central Asia all the way from Greece to India’s northwestern frontier. Alexander was born in 356 BC at Pella in ancient Greece, and succeeded his father, king Phillip II, to the throne at the age of 20. Over the next 10 years, Alexander led campaigns across large parts of West Asia and North Africa. In 330 BC, he defeated Darius III in the decisive battle of Gaugamela, and after a long campaign in Bactria in the region of the Amu Darya north of today’s Afghanistan, he crossed the Hindu Kush and entered the Kabul valley. In 327 BC, Alexander crossed the Indus, the farthest frontier of the old Persian empire, and began his Indian campaign that lasted about two years. The king of Taxila surrendered to Alexander, but beyond the Jhelum he was challenged by the legendary warrior whom Greek sources have identified as Porus. In the battle of Hydaspes that followed, Alexander won, but following his famous interview with Porus — during which the wounded king is said to have demanded that the invading emperor treat him “as befits a king” — was impressed enough to return to the captive Porus his kingdom, and to leave him in charge of Punjab when the Greek army ultimately retreated. After the defeat of Porus, Alexander wished to march on into the heartland of the Gangetic basin — but upon reaching the Beas, the last of the five rivers of Punjab, his generals refused to go further. Alexander was forced to turn back, and he followed the Indus southward to its delta, where he sent part of his army to Mesopotamia by sea, while leading the other part overland along the Makran coast. He reached Susa in Persia in 324 BC, and in the following year, died in the ancient city of Babylon, to the south of today’s Baghdad. His aborted Indian campaign notwithstanding, Alexander is believed to have died undefeated in any battle

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