Ancient India history Flashcards

Question

The Jain Tirthankara Mahavira has been mentioned in the early Buddhist literature as?

Answer 1

In the Buddhist Pali Canon, Mahavira is referred to as Nigantha Nataputta. A person who has attained Kevalva can be a Nigantha.

Answer 2

Therigatha is not a part of early Jains literature. The Therigatha is a Buddhist scripture, a collection of short poems supposedly recited by early members of the Buddhist Sangha in India around 600 BC Acharanga sutra and Sutrakritanga are the first two angas of Jain literature Brihatkalpasutra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira

Answer 3

one of his disciple Sudharma Swami is said to have taken over me leadership, He was the head of Jain community till 515 BCE.

Answer 4

In 8th century. King Dharampal of Pal dynasty formed the world famous Vikramshila Mahavihar in Antichak village, Kahalgaon.

Answer 5

Rajgriha Bhagwan Mahavirs first sermon (called '**Divya-Dhwanr**) was delivered on '**Vipulachala Hill' near 'Rajgrahi'**.

Answer 6

The first Jain council (conference) of monks was held in Pataliputra about 160 years after Lord Mahavira's nirvana. Monk Bhadrabahu, who had the knowledge of all 12 Angas, could not be present at that meeting. The rest of the monks could compile only the first eleven Angas by recollection and thus, the twelfth Anga was lost. The monks from the South did not agree with this compilation, and the first split in Jainism started. Jains divided into two main groups, Svetambaras and Digambaras.

Answer 7

The Kalpa Sutra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras. Bhadrabahu is considered the author of the text and it is traditionally said to have been composed about one hundred and fifty years after Nirvana of Mahavira.

Answer 8

The custom Santhara is related to Jain sects. Santhara, a Jain spiritual practice which entails a voluntary giving up of one's life through fasting.

Answer 9

Mahavira was married to Yashoda and produced a daughter whose husband, Jamali, became the first disciple

Answer 10

The grand image of Gomoteshwara was installed by Chavundaraya in 988 AD at Sharavanbelgola. Chamundaraya was a military commander, poet and a minister in the court of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad in present day Karnataka,

Answer 11

Rishabhnath- ayodhya Sambhavanath - Sravasti Padmanamprabhu- Kausambi Parsvanath- Kashi

Answer 12

Ajitnath - Ayodhya Vimalnath - Kampilya Shantinath - Hastinapur Parshvanath- Kashi

Answer 13

The important occasion of Chandragupta Maurya's reign was the forecast of a twelve years famine. At that time Acharya Bhadrabahu was the head of the Jain church. According to the **Jain text Rajvaliya Katha**, the king saw sixteen dreams. He requested Bhadrabahu to interpret the dreams. The latter explained all the dreams and according to the last one, he predicted a famine of twelve years. Chandragupta, who was a follower of Bhadrabahu, gave up his throne

Answer 14

Both are true bt 2 doesn't explain 1 Mahavira was not the founder of Jain religion but simply a reformer. This sect of the Nigranthas was an important sect at the rise of Buddhism. This may be inferred from the fact that they are **frequently mentioned in the pitakas** as opponents of Buddha and his disciples. This conclusion is further supported by another fact. **Mankkhali Gosala, a contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira** divided mankind into six classes, of these the third class contained the Nigranlhas

Answer 15

1. son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the elected chief of the Sakya clan (Kapilavastu). Due to this, Buddha was also known as ‘Sakyamuni’. Mahamaya was a princess of Kosalan dynasty 2. His mother died either giving birth to him or after seven days. Siddhartha was brought up by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him the name ‘Gautama’. 3. Alara Kama his teacher of meditation; charioteer named Channa; Horse's name Kanthaks; when left his home, he also sought teachings of Udraka Ramaputra who taught him meditative absorption leading to "the state of neither perception nor non-perception" 4. He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.

Answer 16

1. born as Prince Siddhartha at **Lumbini near Kapilavastu (in present Nepal)** in **563 BC** 2. left his home at the **age of 29** to become an ascetic. This event is called **Mahabhishkramana** 3. idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four different states of man – sick man, old man, corpse and ascetic 4. wandered for seven years and at the age of 35 attained enlightenment at Uruvela while meditating under a banyan tree on the banks of the river Niranjana. This tree came to be known as ‘Bodhi tree’ and the place became Bodh Gaya (in Bihar). 5. gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called Dharmachakra Pravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana meaning ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’. 6. died in 483 BC under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (in UP). This event is called the Mahaparinirvana.

Answer 17

Mahavira Jaina, Kings Prasenjit, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.

Answer 18

* four noble truths (Arya Satya) in Buddhism * Ashtangirka Marga * tri Ratnas * also laid down a code of conduct fr his followers * avoid excessof luxury as well as hardship; prescribed the middle path * doesn't recognize God or soul * Stressed on karma and ahimsa * against the varna system -\> gained popularity among lower castes * hwevr supported the social order based on classes i.e nt based on birth bt on action * believed in law of Karma

Answer 19

1. The world is full of sorrow. 2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow. 3. Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire. 4. Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka Marga).

Answer 20

1. Right understanding 2. Right resolve 3. Right speech 4. Right action 5. Right living 6. Right efforts 7. Right thought 8. Right self-concentration.

Answer 21

1. Buddha: the highest spiritual potential in everyone. 2. Dhamma: the teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit Dharma or righteousness) 3. Sangha: order of monks who follow Buddhism.

Answer 22

1. do not covet property of others 2. donot commit violence 3. do not use intoxicants 4. do not tell a lie 5. do not indulge in corrupt practices

Answer 23

1. literally, one who essence is enlightenment 2. term refers to gautam Buddha, before his enlightenment; also refers to other individuals destined to become Buddha 3. Theoretically, anyone can become bodhisattva 4. Bodhisattvas delay their own nirvana to help others 5. MUST be a male 6. may live life of a HHer and need nt be a monk 7. sub-category of celestial Bodhisattvas

Answer 24

1. manifestation of eternal buddhas 2. Foremost among them are Avalokitesvara 3. In Tibet, Avalokitesvara, Manjusri and Vajrapani frm popular trinity of worshipped bodhisattvas 4. In china, 1. Manjusri: represents Wisdom 2. Ksitigarbh: saviour of dead 3. Samantabhadra: happiness 4. Kuan-yin: Chinese name fr Avalokitesvara

Answer 25

1. Hinayana 2. mahayana 3. Vajrayana

Answer 26

1. believed in original teachings of Buddha 2. sought individual salvation thru self-meditation and discipline 3. didn't believe in idol worship 4. a 'religion without God'; Karma is the God here 5. Nirvana is regarded as extinction of all 6. oldest schoolof Hinayan: Sthavirvada (Theravada in Pali) or 'Doctrine of elders' 7. pali, language of masses used (as did Buddha) 8. patronised by asoka

Answer 27

1. often Asang is attributed as founder of Mahayana school 2. believed in divinity of Buddha 3. sought salvation thru grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas 4. believed in idol worship 5. Nirvana isn't a negative cessation of misery bt a =ve state of bliss 6. used Sanskrit, language of scholars 7. patronised by Kanishka and later by Harsha

Answer 28

1. salvation cud be attained thru magical power, which they called vajra 2. chief divinities: taras 3. becam epopular in eastern india in 8th cent AD, particularly bengal and Bihar 4. mission sent by great Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila to Tibet led to its popularity in Tibet in 11th cent AD 5. influenced by many tantric sects 6. during waning of Buddhism frm India, large no of Vajrayan Buddhism followers amalgamated into Hinduism, giving a tantric undercurrent to Hinduism, in eastren India particularly.

Answer 29

1. Tripittakas aka canonical texts (Canonical texts are those that are linked to Gautama Buddha in one way or another) 1. Vinaya Pitaka 2. Sutta Pitaka 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka 2. Khandakhas 3. among non-canonical literature, Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa; latter two great chronicles of Ceylon

Answer 30

1. deals with rules and regulations prescribed by Buddha 2. describes in detail, evolution of Sangha 3. acct of life and teaching ofBuddha 4. acct of monastic codes and conducts

Answer 31

1. consists cheifly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions 2. few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and others also incl

Answer 32

1. contains philosophy of Buddha's teachings 2. investigates mind and matter 3. contains religious discussions and debates Buddha had with his followers

Answer 33

1. contain regulations on life in monastic order 2. two sections 1. mahavagga 2. cullavagga 3. third part also, Parivara, bt nt so significant

Answer 34

1. at Satparni caves, Rajgriha 2. 483 BC, just after Buddha’s demise 3. presided by MahaKassapa 4. patron: king ajatshatru of Haryanka dynasty 5. Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings 6. At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) 7. Mahakassapa composed and Upali recited the Vinaypitaka (monastic code)

Answer 35

1. held at Vaishali. 2. held in 383 BC, i.e., hundred years after the Buddha’s death 3. Sabakami presided over 4. patronage of King Kalasoka of Sisunaga dynasty. 5. Main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka. 6. first major split happened here – two groups that would later evolve into Theravada and Mahayana. The first group was called **Theravadins or Sthaviravadins** (meaning Elder in Pali). They wanted to preserve the teachings of Buddha in the original spirit. The other group called **Mahasanghika** (Great Community) interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more liberally.

Answer 36

1. at Pataliputra 2. held in 250 BC 3. presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa 4. patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty; Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana 5. Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in the Sangha 6. Abhidhamma Pitaka was codified here making the almost completion of the modern Pali Tipitaka. 7. estab of Sthavirvada school as an orthodox school 8. Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.

Answer 37

1. at Kundalvana in Kashmir. 2. 1st century AD 3. Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council 4. under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty 5. All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit. 6. Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit. 7. This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).

Answer 38

a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. It contains a collection of the sayings of the Buddha in verse form.

Answer 39

Literal meaning in Pali – Questions of Milinda. It was written around 100 BC. It contains a dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander I or Milinda of Bactria and sage Nagasena where Milinda asks questions on Buddhism to the sage.

Answer 40

it is an epic poem composed in Sanskrit by Ashvaghosha in early 2nd century AD. It is about the life of the Buddha.

Answer 41

1. Asvaghosha: contemp of Kanishka; was a poet, dramatist, musician and scholar; believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet prior to Kalidasa 2. Nagarjuna: friend of Satavahan king Yajnasri gautamiputra of andhra. Propounded the madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy, popularly knwn as **Shunyavada** 3. Aryadeva was a disciple of Nagarjuna and author of several important **Mahayana Madhyamaka Buddhis**t texts. He is also known as **Kanadeva**, the **15th patriarch in Chan Buddhism**, and as **Bodhisattva Deva**" in Sri Lanka. 4. Asanga and Vasubandhu: brothers flourished in PJ region in 4th cent AD; Asanga was mst imp teacher of Yogachara or Vijnanavada school, Vasubandhu wrote Abhidharmakosa, an encyclopedia of Buddhism 5. Buddhaghosha: 5th cent AD; great Pali scholar; Vissudhimaga imp post-tripitaka literature 6. Dinnaga: 5th cent AD; well known founder of Buddhis logic 7. Dharmakriti: 7th cent AD; Buddhist logician

Answer 42

1. use of Pali 2. Buddha also organized sangha with doors open to everybody, incl women 3. asked people nt to accumulate wealth and asked fr removal of poverty frm world 4. also was aware of social realities 1. rule that debtors weren'tallowed to be members of Sangha, helped moneylenders and richer sections of society 2. rule that slaves cud nt sangha helped slave owners 5. allowed HHers; propounded middle path 6. Initial Sanghas were democratic and disciplined organisations. 7. embrace by kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha and Harshavardhana. 8. promoted education through residential universities like Valabhi, Nalanda and Vikramshila

Answer 43

1. doctrine of Ahimsa 2. laid foundation of image worship: Mahayana 3. art and archi : stupas, stone pillars etc. 4. enriched Pali language 5. resident universities 1. nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar 2. Vallabhi in GJ 3. Taxila in NW region 6. missionaries to world around

Answer 44

practically became extinct by 12th cent AD

Answer 45

* Maitreya is a transcendent Bodhisattva named as the universal Buddha of a future time in Mahayana Buddhism. * Kakusandha Buddha (Pali), known as Krakucchanda in Sanskrit, and Khoivadjig in Tibetan, is one of the ancient Buddhas * Amitabha also Amida or Amitayus, is a celestial Buddha according to the scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism. * Kanak Muni Buddha was believed as previous of Gautama Buddha.

Answer 46

* Acharanga Sutra is not a text of Buddhism. It is first of the twelve Angas, part of the angas which were compiled based on the teachings of Mahavira * Jatakas are an important part of Buddhist art and literature. They describe the previous existences or births of the Buddha (the Enlightened One) when he appeared as Bodhisattvas (beings who are yet to attain enlightenment or moksha), in both human and non-human forms. * Digha Nikaya is a Buddhist scripture, the first of the five nikayas, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka * Sumangala-vilasini Buddhaghosa's commentary on the Digha-nikaya

Answer 47

The order of Buddhist monks and nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. Buddha instituted a community of nuns in Vaishali at the request of his aunt Mahaprajapati.

Answer 48

**Rummindei Pillar** Inscription says that The Beloved of the Gods, **the king Piyadassi**, when he had been consecrated twenty years, came in person find referenced the place where Buddha Sakyamuni was born. He caused a **stone enclosure to be made and a stone pillar** to be erected. As the Lord was born here in the village of Lumbini, he has exempted it from tax, and fixed its contribution [i.e. of grain] at one- eighth.

Answer 49

Astangika Marg is Kalyan Mitra in Buddhist philosophy

Answer 50

1. Buddha's last ordained disciple was a very old Brahmin in the name of **Subhadra** who came to pay his last respects to him and asked for ordination. Immediately after ordination, Subhadra attained enlightenment and passed away. 2. **Ananda, first cousin of the Buddha** and one of Mst Principal disciples, known a**s his "beloved disciple**" and devoted companion. 3. Sariputta or Sariputra was **one of two chief, male disciples** of Gautama Buddha **along with Moggallana** 4. **Bhikkhunis Khema and Uppalavanna**, his two chief female disciples. 5. **Upali** was a monk, **one of the ten chief disciples of the Buddha**. Before joining the order, he was part of the Royal barber caste and worked as a barber.

Answer 51

* Pratitya Samutpad is the main element of Buddhist philosophy. It refers to one of the central concepts in the Buddhist tradition that **all things arise in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions**. * Jiva and Ajiva: Jainism believes that the whole universe can be divided into two categories, viz. Jiva, i.e., soul and Ajiva, i.e. non-soul. These two" Jiva and Ajiva-exhaust between them all that exists in the universe * Syadvada: jain philosophhy

Answer 52

Yapaniya was a school of Jainism. The saints of the Yapaniya School practised nudity like the Digambaras and believed in the liberation of women in conformity with the Svetambaras. refer Flashcard #16

Answer 53

Lord Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar, the mortal remains of Tathagat were kept in the 'parliament house', of the Republic of Mallas.

Answer 54

In Jainism, Ahmsa is the standard by which all actions are judged. For a householder observing the small vows (anuvrata), the practice of ahinsa requires that one should not kill any animal life.

Answer 55

Avalokitesvara is one of the most widely revered Bodhisattvas in mainstream Mahayana Buddhism, as well as unofficially in Theravada Buddhism. In Sanskrit, Avalokitesvara is also referred to as Padmapani (Holder of the Lotus) or Lokesvara (Lord of the World).

Answer 56

Sanchi, buddha never visited Sanchi

Answer 57

1. The Lingayat Community was founded by Basava in the 12th century AD. 2. TheLingayats are Virashaivites Saivite. 3. The philosophy of the Lingayatas was influenced by the teachings of both Shankarachary and Ramanuja. 4. This sect was characterised by an anti-Brahmanical spirit.

Answer 58

Lakulisha was a prominent Shaivite revivalist, reformist and preceptor of the doctrine of the Pashupatas, one of the oldest sects of Shaivism. According to some scholars, Lakulisha is the founder of the Pashupata sect.

Answer 59

He is traditionally considered the founder of Hatha yoga as well as author of some of its earliest texts. He is also seen as the founder of the Hatha sampradaya, having received the teachings from Shiva. He is especially associated with Kaula Shaivism.

Answer 60

1. Sunyavada was founded by an Indian Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna (150 - 250 CE) and based on the Prajnaparamita Sutras, expounding the philosophy of emptiness, voidness (Sunyata), which later also influenced Ch'an in China and Zen in Japan. 2. Vasubandhu was a very influential Buddhist monk and scholar from Gandhara. Vasubandhu was a philosopher who wrote on the Abhidharma from the perspectives of the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika schools. 3. Vasumita; The monk who led the Fourth Buddha Council in Kashmir around the second century and helped compile The Great Commentary on the Abhidharma.

Answer 61

Maitreyanatha (270-3 50 CE) is one of the three founders of the Vigyanvada or Yogachar school of Buddhist philosophy, along with Asanga and Vaspbandhu

Answer 62

* **Ajivika, an ascetic sect** that emerged in India about the **same time as Buddhism and Jainism** and that lasted until the 14th century. It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra (also called **Gosala Makkhaliputta)**. * Purana Kassapa was an **Indian ascetic teacher** who lived around the 5th or 4th century BCE, **contemporaneous** with Mahavira and the Buddha. * Ajita Kesakambali was an ancient Indian philosopher in the 6th century BC. He is considered to be the **first known proponent of Indian materialism**. He was probably a **contemporary** of the Buddha and Mahavira.

Answer 63

Kanishka's coins portray images of Indian, Greek, Iranian and even Sumero-Elamite divinities, demonstrating the religious syncretism in his beliefs. The Buddhist coins of Kanishka are comparatively rare. Several coins show Kanishka on the obverse and the Buddha standing on the reverse, in Hellenistic style.

Answer 64

1. Lotus and Bull 2. stupa

Answer 65

The 6 materialistic sects of 6th cent 1. Ajit KesaKambalin Believed in materialism/ annihlationalism: no life after death 2. Makkhali Gosal Founder of Ajivaka sect 3. Purana Kassap Amoralism 4. Pakudha Katyayan Believed in Eternalism 5. Sanjay belathputta Believed in materialism synicism or agnosticism 6. Niggantha Nathputta He was Bhagvan Mahavir ALso was there Lokayat, bt nt mentioned by Buddhist sects. Founded by Charvaka; didn't believe in any supernatural thing like soul or god; focus on pleasure in actual life.

Answer 66

3-2-4-1 Varsavasas is annual three month retreat by Theravadas. Usually in wet months Risipattna is another name of Sarnath

Answer 67

Both True, bt R doesn't explain A It is believed that Buddha spent 25 rainy seasons in Sravasti of which 19 he spent in the Jetavana Monastery and six in the Pubbarama monastery. It is also the place where he gave the maximum number of discourses and instructions. Prasenjit, the Kosala king, was the contemporary of Gautama Buddha.

Answer 68

In 747, the Indian master Padma Sambhava travelled from Afghanistan to bring Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan at the request of the king of Tibet.

Answer 69

Yavanajataka is not a Buddhist writing. Sage Yavana, who belonged to the Alexander period, wrote Yavanajataka. He was an astrologer in the Greek court in India.

Answer 70

Manimekhalai is a second-century Tamil verse epic reflects the ancient culture of India in the story of a beautiful young dancer who abandons her future as a courtesan in order to dedicate her life to the pursuit of Buddliism. She became a Buddhist nun or Bhikshuni and practiced to rid herself from the bondage of birth and death and attain Nirvana.

Answer 71

The rules of the Sangha

Answer 72

It is a place where intellectual debates among Buddhist mendicants took place Kutagarasala Vihara is the monastery where Buddha most frequently stayed while visiting Vaishali. It is located 3 kilometres from the relic Stupa.

Answer 73

The entry of woman as a Bhikshuni into the Buddhist Sangha was allowed by the Buddha for the first time in vaishali. The first woman who got entry into the Sangha was the **Prajapati Gautami** the step mother of Buddha.

Answer 74

1. ascetic sect, contemporary with Buddhism and jainism 2. founded by Gosala Makkhhali, early friend of Mahavir 3. highlights: 1. professed total determinism in transmigration of soul or rebirths i.e. cosmic force called niyati decided man's fate to the last detail 2. man cud nt do anything fr his rebirth 3. went abt naked 4. strictness in their rules wrt means of livelihood 5. Asoka's father Bimbisara was a follower and major patron 4. Sometimes classified among 6 materialistic schools of 6th cent bt in essence nt completely so, coz they did believe in transmigration of souls while the materialistic schools rejected all immaterial categories completely.

Answer 75

1. Arthashastra: 1. 15 Adhikarnas or parts; 6000 slokas 2. money and politics 3. commentary on it by Bhataswamy-\> Pratipada Panchika 2. Indica written in greek by Megasthenes, ambassador of Seleucus Nicator to CM's court; wroteabt Patliputra as well as Mauryan society and state as a whole 3. Ashoka's edicts and inscriptions eg. inscriptions of junagarh 4. MudraRakshasa by Vishakhadutta in 5th cent: ascension of CM 5. Buddhist and Jain scriptures like Mahavamsa(Buddhist) - life and acct of Asoka 6. Malvikagnimitram by Kalidasa : last yrs of maurya ruleandascension of Pushyamitra Sunga

Answer 76

1. Buddhist source: a Kshatriya; a tribe of Sakyas, Moriyas (region full of peacocks) 2. Jain: Moriya tribe of peacock farmers 3. Brahmanical: describe him as a Shudra 4. Greek: **Sandrakottas** of humble origin

Answer 77

1. Palibrothos by Strabo 2. Androcotus by Plutarch 3. Piyadamas/ Vrishal/Chandrasiri/Kulihin by Mudrarakshasa

Answer 78

1. Ajivika patron 2. receivd Greek ambassador Daimachos frm Antochus I 3. received Ptolemy II's envoy Dionysios 4. various names: 1. Amitraghat by sanskrit lit 2. Amitchetas by Strabo 3. Seemseri 4. Bindupala

Answer 79

Syria - Antiocus II Egypt - ptolemy II Macedonia - Antigonus Gonatas Epirus - Alexander

Answer 80

1. Devanamkpriya - Monarchial epithet 2. ashokavadnan - Purana 3. Piyadassiraja - Barabar cave incription 4. Ashoka Maurya - Junagarh incription 5. Piyadassi - Kandhar inscription

Answer 81

1. Dharma-mahamatras 2. Dhammayuktas 3. stri-adhyaksha

Answer 82

* 14 major rock edicts spread across 8 places + 2separate edicts at Kalinga ; * deals with admin and ethics * practical instructions in running the kingdom such as the design of irrigation systems and descriptions of Ashoka's beliefs in peaceful moral behavior. * They contain little personal detail about his life. * inscribed on large rocks, except for the Kandahar version in Greek (Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka), written on a stone plaque belonging to a building * not located in the heartland of Mauryan territory, traditionally centered on Bihar, but on the frontiers of the territory * minor rock edicts spread across 13 places * form the earliest part of the Edicts of Ashoka; predate Major edicts * first known edict: Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription, in Greek and in Aramaic * Minor Rock Edict No.1 is historically particularly important in that it confirmed the association of the title "Devanampriya" with the name "Asoka" * texts of the inscriptions are rather short, the technical quality of the engraving of the inscriptions is generally very poor, and generally very inferior to the pillar edicts dated to the years 26 and 27 of Ashoka's reign * can be found throughout the territory of Ashoka, including in the frontier area near the Hindu Kush, and are especially numerous in the southern, * found on 15 rocks across the country and in Afghanistan also * Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP).

Answer 83

Prohibits animal slaughter and bans festive gathering.

Answer 84

Care for man and animals. Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India

Answer 85

Generosity to Brahmins. About Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas who would go every five years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.

Answer 86

Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/righteousness) over Bherighosha (sound of war).

Answer 87

About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about treating slaves right.

Answer 88

King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About welfare measures.

Answer 89

Tolerance for all religions.

Answer 90

Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first Dhamma Yatra)

Answer 91

Condemns popular ceremonies.

Answer 92

Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and stresses on Dhamma.

Answer 93

Elaborates on Dhamma

Answer 94

Tolerance for all religions and sects.

Answer 95

Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.

Answer 96

* Engraving of inscriptions installed in various parts of the country. * inclusion of Assoka into Sangha

Answer 97

at Kalinga Kalinga Edict – I: King declares that all men are his children. Talks about Mahamantras . Kalinga Edict – II: Proclamation of edicts even to a single person.

Answer 98

1. Ashoka uses his name only in copies of Minor Rock edict I at four places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP). 2. Queen Edict: Mentions about second queen of Asoka 3. Barbara cave Inscription: Discusses giving away the Barbara cave to Ajivika sect Kandhar. Barabar Caves are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, mostly dating from the Maurya Empire 4. **Quandhar edict**: * earliest than all other edicts pillar, rock or barabara cave * Bilingual Rock Inscription * Expresses gratification over Ashoka’s policy: talks abt hunters and fishermen giving up killing and choosing settled agri life 5. Bhabru edict: faith of ruler and kingdom in Dhamma 6. minor rock edicts helped in identifying 'Suvarnabhumi' as KN 7. minor rock edict I: talks about Asoka's inclusion in Sangha 8. minor rock edict II: talks of promoting Dhamma 9. Minor rock edict III: talks about Buddhist sanghas

Answer 99

1. There are seven pillar edicts. 2. Two types of stones are used: spotted white sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati). 3. All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone). 4. They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). 5. Fragments of the same edict are found in different places. 6. Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons. 7. The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions and wheels and lotuses which are all significant symbols in Buddhism.

Answer 100

Pillar Edict I : Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people. Pillar Edict II : Dhamma Pillar Edict III : Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger among his subjects. Pillar Edict IV : Responsibilities of the Rajukas. Pillar Edict V : List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days. Another list which mentions animals that should never be killed. Pillar Edict VI : Dhamma policy of the State. Pillar Edict VII: Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects.

Answer 101

1. Rummindei pillar inscription: mentions exemption of Lumbini, birth place of Buddha, frm tax 2. Nigalisagar pillar inscription: priginally near Kapilvastu; nw near Rummindei or Lumbini; says that Asoka increased the stupa of Buddha Konakamana to double its former size 3. Schism edict: at Kausambi, SAnchi and Sarnath; appeals fr maintaining unity in Buddhist order.

Answer 102

used 3 languages- Prakrit, greek and Aramic; and 4 scripts- Brahmi, Kharosthi, greek and Aramaic 1. In eastern part of the empire, the Magadhi language in Brahmi script is used. (Magadhi is the dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha). 2. In N-W parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in kharoshti script is used. 3. Major Rock Edict XIII (Kandhar rock inscription) contains an extract in Greek and Aramaic as well.

Answer 103

1. Mudrarakshasa 2. Devichandraguptam: tells how King Ramagupta is cheated into signing a humiliating treaty with a Saka ruler.

Answer 104

Ashoka maintained close relations with Tissa, the ruler of Ceylon. Devaanampiya Tissa was the second son of Mutasiva. He was a friend of Asoka even before he became king.

Answer 105

Separate Kalinga Rock Edict P

Answer 106

One of the edicts of Asoka's Barbara cave inscription mentions the donation of Barbara hills region to Ajivika sect.

Answer 107

Kharosthi script has been used in the inscriptions found at Shahbazgarhi in Mardan District of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan and Manshera also in Pakistan

Answer 108

The Buddhist texts mention about the family of Ashoka. His first wife was a princess ofUjjaini called Devi or Vedisa. His two other wives were Kamvaki and Asandhimitra. Asoka's only son mentioned in inscriptions is Tivara, who was born to Kamvaki. The name of Kamvaki and Tivara are mentioned in Queen's edict.

Answer 109

Ashoka built the Sarnath pillar to commemorate the site of the first preaching of Lord Buddha, where he taught the Dharma to five monks. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is about 15.24 m in height and weighs 50 tons. The four-lion sculpture placed on top of this pillar is now treasured in the Archaeological Museum of Sarnath.

Answer 110

T india, Pak, Afghanistan and nepal

Answer 111

officers with authority to administr justice, reward as well as punish people

Answer 112

1. paternak kingship 2. disapproved rituals,esp those observed by women 3. forbade killing of certain birds and completley banned killing of animals in capital 4. prohibit social fns where people indulged in reveleries 5. focussed on peservin the social order: proper behaviour to relatives, elders and monks 6. if people behaved well, they can attain heaven , **NOT NIRVANA, thus wasn't a sectarian path bt just a wayof life** 7. such a pacifist policy unheard of prior to him except in **Egypt where Akhnaton** pursued a pacifist policy in 14th cent BC

Answer 113

1. official measured land as in egypt and inspected channels thru which water was distributed into smaller channels 2. He didn't notice any slaves in India 3. roads connecting NW India with Patna

Answer 114

1. highest officer in charge of assessment 2. chief custodian of treasury and store house

Answer 115

punch marked silver coins (called pana) carrying symbols of peacock, hill and crescent.

Answer 116

1. introduced stone masonry on large scale; Megasthenes mention of Patliputra palace (present Kumrahar) 2. started carving out caves frm rocks fr monks to live in; earliest eg Barabar caves, near Gaya 3. spread of material culture: 1. tradin and missionary activities 2. intensive use of iron as wellas art of making steel 3. prevalence of writing 4. NBPW pottery 5. intro of burnt bricks and Ring wells fr common water supply ina community (no more mst to settle near a river) 6. state formation inPenin india incl Satvahanas are also said to be inspired by Mauryas 7. **Nt a large pop**, bt the largest bureaucracy in Ancient Indian history

Answer 117

* Bangarh in Dinajpur district, BN * ChandraKetugarh in 24 parganas, WB * Sisupalgarh, Odisha

Answer 118

1. Lauriya has 15 Stupa mounds in three rows 2. Alexander Cunningham partially excavated one of them 3. Pillar has lion capital

Answer 119

* Shungas and Kanvas in central india * Chetis in Kalinga * Satvahanas in deccan

Answer 120

by Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti in 220BC to shield against Scythians (central Asians)

Answer 121

Brihadratha

Answer 122

succeded Mauryas after a gap of 100 yrs. earliest Satvahanas inscriptions belong to 1st cent BC, when they defeated Kanvas and established their rule in Central India considered to be identical with Andhras, who are mentioned in Puranas (though the name Andhra does not appear in Satvahanas inscriptions) INitial rulers appeared in north MH, in the upper Godavari valley. gradually extended over Andhra. greatest competitors were Shakas who had established their control over upper Deccan and western India Most famous

Answer 123

1. rose to prominence in 320 AD 2. spread to large parts of northern India, central and small parts of southern India. 3. original homeland of the Guptas is not known for certain. But they might have originated from Bengal. Some scholars think they are from Prayaga (Allahabad in UP). 4. thought to be either Brahmins or Vaishyas. 5. Golden or classical age

Answer 124

1. Sri Gupta 2. Ghatotkacha 3. Chandragupta I 4. Samudragupta 5. Chandragupta II 6. Kumaragupta I 7. Skandagupta 8. Vishnugupta

Answer 125

1. Founder of Gupta Dynasty 2. 240-280 AD 3. used the title of 'Maharaja'

Answer 126

1. son of Sri Gupta 2. took title of ‘Maharaja‘

Answer 127

1. first great ruler of the line 2. increased power and extent of empire by 1. matrimonial alliance 2. conquests 3. married Kumaradevi, Lichhavi princess 1. first Indian queen featured on a coin 4. assumed the title of 'Maharajadhiraj' 5. Started the Gupta era in 320 AD, which marked the date of his accession

Answer 128

1. source: Prayaga Prasasti composed by Harisena, poet at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad pillar inscription * Also Eran inscription (MP) mentionshis conquests 2. ascension to throne in 335 AD 3. also a lover of art; also called “Kaviraja” 4. 'Indian napolean' and 'Hero of a hundred battles' by V.A. Smith: policy of conquest; 'Digvijaya' his ultimate goal 5. His region extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Krishna and Godavari Rivers in the south; and from Balkh (Afghanistan) in the west to Brahmaputra River in the east. 6. conquests can be divided into 5 grps 1. Ganga Yamuna doab: defeated and incorporated 2. eastern Himalayan states and frontier states plus some republics of PJ which were finally destroyed 3. forest kingdoms of Vindhyas called **Atavika rajyas** 4. 12 rulers of eastern Deccan and south India- conquered and liberated; as far as Kanchi, TN where Pallavas were compelled to acknowledge his suzerainty 5. Remaining Shakas and Kushanas still ruling in Afghanistan- defeated them and received their submission 7. He was a follower of Vaishnavite Hinduism but was tolerant of other faiths. Acc to a chinese source, Meghvarman, ruler of Sri Lanka sent a missionary to SamudraGpta fr permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya which was agreed by Samudragupta. 8. He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifice. Hence, one of his coins refers to him as “the restorer of Ashvamedha.”

Answer 129

Eran is an archaeologically important place in MP. It is important for three reasons * one of the earliest coin minting centres in ancient India * many Vishnu avatar temples found here. Most famous being a huge varaha statue. Narsimha and hanuman temples are also there * inscriptions found on pillars and these temple walls 5 inscriptions found here 1. Sridharavarman: Saka king 2. Samudragupta: numeral scripts, with at least "2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7" ; his conquests 3. Budhagupta: a Vaishnava inscription. It describes that the Gupta kingdom stretched from Kalindi River to Narmada River 4. boar inscription of Toramana: names king Toramana, a King of the Alchon Huns, as ruling over Malwa and records that a Dhanyavishnu (someone unknown) is dedicating a stone temple to Narayana (Vishnu) 5. Bhanugupta : mentions Bhanugupta; one the earliest recorded instances of Sati, though doesn't use the word

Answer 130

1. source: glorified, bt exaggerated, in a pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar in Delhi 2. highest watermark of Gupta empire 3. extended power and extense by conquests and marriage alliance eg. marrying his daughter to a Vakataka prince of Central India and conquering malwa and GJ 4. conquest of GJ and Malwa gave him access to coast and also **Ujjain which he made his second capital** 5. Navratnas (9 Gems in his Court) 6. Took the title ‘Vikramaditya’ which was first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57 BC to mark his victory over the Saka ksatrapas 7. Chinese pilgrim **Fa-Hien (399-414)** visited India 8. assumed the title Sakari after he annexed three Satrapa kingdoms; He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III 9. His other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya Sakari, etc.

Answer 131

1. Amarsimha: lexicography (dictionaries): Amarkosha 2. Dhanvantri: Medicine: Ayurveda 3. Harisena: Poetry: Allahabad inscription 1. also wrote Brihatkatha Kosh: that describes the features of languages and clothing of people of SE Asia 4. Kalidasa: Drama and poetry: in next flashcard 5. Kahapanaka: astrology: Jyotishashastra 6. Sanku: Architecture: Shilpashastra 7. Varahmihira: Astrology: Brihadsamhita 8. Vararuchi: Grammar: Vyakarna (in sanskrit) 9. Vetalbhatta: Magic : Mantrashastra

Answer 132

* 3 plays: 1. Mālavikāgnimitram 2. Abhijñānaśākuntalam: among the first Sanskrit works to be translated into English, and has since been translated into many languages 3. Vikramōrvaśīyam * poems: * epics: two epic poems, Raghuvaṃśa ("Dynasty of Raghu") and Kumārasambhava * two khandakavyas: * Descriptive:Ṛitusaṃhāra describes the six seasons by narrating the experiences of two lovers in each of the seasons * Elegiac: Kālidāsa created his own genre of poetry with Meghadūta (The Cloud Messenger), the story of a Yaksha trying to send a message to his lover through a cloud.

Answer 133

Sudraka: an Indian king and playwright. Three Sanskrit plays are ascribed to him - Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart), **Vinavasavadatta**, and a bhana (short one-act monologue), **Padmaprabhritaka** **based in Ujjain, itis attributed to Gupta period.**

Answer 134

1. Founded Nalanda University 2. He was also called Shakraditya

Answer 135

1. Took the title of ‘Vikramaditya‘ 2. Was a ‘Vaishnavite‘ 3. Son of Kumaragupta 4. Repulsed an attack by the Hunas but this strained his empire’s coffers

Answer 136

Last known ruler of the Gupta Dynasty (540 AD – 550 AD)

Answer 137

1. adopted pompous titles like parmeshwara maharajadhiraja etc 2. kingship hereditary bt nt always the eldest son-\> created uncertainties 3. gifts to Brahmans; in return they patronsied the king as Vishnu; may hv portrayed them as Brhmans while origially probably were vaishyas 4. stndg army; cavalry and horse archery replaced House chariots 5. land taxes increased in no. while those on trade decreased 6. 1/4th-1/6th taxes + forced labor called vishti 7. judicial system far more developed with several law book; first tie civil and criminal laws clearly demarcated; laws abt inheritance; varna differentaited laws; king tried cases ; guilds also had their own laws 8. distributing powers to brahmans and guilds meant not as elaborate bureaucracy as Maurya's 9. recruitment nt confined to upper varnas only; though often became hereditary 10. mst imp officers : kumaramatyas

Answer 138

1. empire divided into divisions (bhuktis): under charge of an uparika 2. bhuktis were divided into districts (vishayas), placed under vishayapati 3. in eastern India, vishayas were divided into vithis, which were further divided into villages 4. village headmen became more imp with assistance of elders 5. in urban admin, organised professional bodies were imp eg. their consent fr land transactions was needed.

Answer 139

1. major part of Gupta's empire was under them 2. three obligations to Samudragupta: 1. personal attendance in his court 2. paid tribute to him 3. presented their daughters to him fr marriage

Answer 140

1. fiscal and administrative powers 2. started in deccan by Satvahanas; became regular practice under Guptas 3. free of tax, fr ever and authorised to collect taxes 4. cud nt be entered by royal agents 5. also empowerd to punish criminals 6. brought virgin lands under cultivation

Answer 141

1. importance of guilds 2. tax + vishti 3. abundance of gold coins called dinaras; official paid in cash as well as land sales in cash bt not so much by commonpeople 4. coins regular in size and weight; many types; portrays Gupta kings and their love fr war and art; nt as pure in gold as kushanas 5. didn't regulate economic activities on any large scale 6. Fa-Hien informs that magadha was full of cities and rich people 7. decline in long distance trade coz eastern roman learnt art of growing silk frm Chinese 8. trade thru rivers became popular and cheap. ship building ind flourished; Tamralipti, a port in bengal, became an imp trade centre with trades with eastern countries * imp ports also developed in South, on banks of Godavari and Krishna like Tondai (Chola), Kalyana, Chol, Broach and Cambay.

Answer 142

1. castes proliferated 2. brahmanas accumulated land and thus more privileges mentioned in Narada smriti 3. no. of foreigners included as different castes 4. position of shudras improved like permitted to listen to Ramayana and Mahabharata and worship a new go, Krishna as well as to perform certain domestic rites. Along with their econmic status as they nw became agriculturalists. 5. No. of untouchables increased esp Chandalas.Their conditions explained by Fa-Hien 6. status of women improved along with the economic status of the lower two varnas; women also seem to receive share in landed property 7. In upper varnas, women more constrained; **first instance of sati in 510 BC; though women cud re-marry; plus beginnins of purdah system** 8. significance of Stridhan concept increased by law books

Answer 143

1. royal patronage to Buddhism stopped bt still it flourished acc to Fa-Hien; some stupas and viharas were constructed 2. tolerance towards diff religious sects; no eg. of persecution of budhist and Jain scholars 3. Nalanda became a centre of Buddhist edu 4. Rise of Bhagvatism; Rise of idol worship 5. majority of GUpta rulers followers of Bhagvatism , bt some also followers of Shavism though he wasn't as important in early Gupta period.

Answer 144

1. originated in post Mauryan times 2. Vishnu was a minor god in Vedic times: representin sun nd fertility 3. By 2nd cent, he was merged with Narayana, who was originally a non-vedic tribal god; narayana was originally called Bhagvat and his worshippers called Bhagvatas as he wassuppoed to bestow goodfortune (bhaga) to his bhakts 4. Later Vishnu-Narayan was made identical with a legendary hero of Vrishni tribe living in western India called Krishna-Vasudeva 5. By 200 BC, followers of all the 3 gods came together, creating Bhagvatism 6. marked by bhakti and ahimsa 7. liberl enough to attract foreigners as well as artisans and merchants, who became imp under Satvahanas and Kushanas. It was also open to women, vaishyas and shudras 8. overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by the Gupta times; preached doctrine of avtars 9. By 6th cent became a member of trinity of Gods 10. Agri festivals were given religious colors

Answer 145

1. Zenith in art and LIterature 2. large no. of Golds as well as gold coins 3. **Nt much improvement in economic field as several towns in N. India declined**

Answer 146

1. an over 2m high bronze image of Buddha recovered frm Sultanganj near Bhagalpur 2. Fa-Hie saw an over 25m high image of Buddha made in Cu, bt its nt traceable nw 3. beautiful images of Buddha were fashioned at sarnath and Mathura 4. Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up in 5th cent with its earliest str frm upta period 5. **Ajanta paintings**: 1. 1st-7th cent AD though most of them frm Gupta times 2. depict various events in Buddha's life as well as previousbuddha 3. life like, natural and brilliant colors 4. **NOTHINg to show that Guptas were the patron** 6. Fr the first time we get images of Shiva, Vishnu and other Hindu gods oftendepicted in an hierarchial manner- **Panchayatan style** 7. Gupta age was poor in architecture bt beginnings of main styles of temple architecture: Nagara and Dravida 1. Brick temple at Bhitargaon, Kanpur 2. Bhitari in ghazipur 3. Deogarh in Jhansi

Answer 147

1. remarkable fr production secular lit- some of the earliest 2. plays written in this period were all comedies and none were tragedies and characters of higher and lower classes do not speak the same language. women and shdras use Prakrit while higher classes use Sanskrit 3. 13 plays written by Bhasa 4. Mrichhkatika or Little caly Cart by Shudraka: one of the best works of ancient drama 5. works of Kalidasa 6. also an increase in production of reliious lit: ramayana and Mahabhrata were completed by 4th cent; earlier Puranas were compiled in this period; also saw compilation of various smritis or law books 7. also saw dev of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali: 1. amarkosha (lexicon aka dictionary) by Amarsimha 2. dev of an ornate style of sanskri different frm the simpleone 3. greater emphasis on verse than prose 4. Sanskrit was thecourt language too

Answer 148

1. Aryabhata 2. Gupta inscription frm 448 AD, frm allahabad suggests knowledge of decimal system 3. in astronomy, Romaka Sidhanta was compiled, influenced by Greek ideas 4. distinguished metal work in Fe and Bronze 1. several bronze images of Buddha 2. Iron pillar fond at Mehrauli, Delhi: mfd in 4th cent, has nt gathered any rust, impossible feat fr any foundry in west until abt a century ago.

Answer 149

* Aryabhatta was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and physicist who lived in the fifth century. * He wrote Aryabhattiya, a description of his time's mathematics. It is divided into four parts. * In the first part, he explains how to use numerals to represent large decimal numbers. Aryabhata created a system of phonemic number notation in which numbers were represented by consonant-vowel monosyllables. * In the second part, we'll find challenging questions on number theory, geometry, trigonometry, and algebra, among other topics in modern mathematics. * The final two parts of Aryabhattiya, also known as Khagol-shastra, are about astronomy (Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied). * His pure mathematics discusses topics such as determination of [square](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root) and [cube roots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_root), geometrical figures with their properties and [mensuration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement), [arithmetric progression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_progression) problems on the [shadow of the gnomon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnomon), [quadratic equations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_equation), [linear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_equation) and [indeterminate equations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminate_equation). Aryabhata calculated the value of [pi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi) (*π)* to the fourth decimal digit and was likely aware that [pi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi) (*π)* is an [irrational number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrational_number). Aryabhata's [sine table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_tables) and his work on [trignometry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry) were extremely influential on the [Islamic Golden Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age); his works were translated into Arabic and influenced [Al-Khwarizmi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi) * He discovered that the apparent westward motion of stars is due to the spherical [Earth's rotation about its own axis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation). Aryabhata also noted that the [luminosity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity) of the Moon and other planets is due to reflected sunlight. * wrote *Arya-siddhanta*

Answer 150

* Varāhamihira's most notable works were the *Brihat Samhita*, an encyclopedic work on architecture, temples, planetary motions, [eclipses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse), timekeeping, astrology etc. It is mostly in code language. More than a dozen commentaries have been written for this work. The Kerala School of Astrology is mainly based on the *Brihadjathaka*. * The chapters of the *Brihat Samhita* and verses of Varahamihira were quoted by the Persian traveler and scholar [Al Biruni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Biruni). * Varāhamihira's main work is the book *Pañcasiddhāntikā* . dated c. 575 CE, which gives us information about older Indian texts which are now lost. The work is a treatise on mathematical astronomy and it summarises five earlier astronomical treatises by five authors, namely * Surya Siddhanta: thought to be composed by Latadeva * romaka Siddhanta * Paulisa Siddhanta * Vasistha Siddhanta * Pitamah Siddhanta

Answer 151

1. Mahabodhi temple, Bodh Gaya 2. Mahaviharas of N, V, S, O and J 3. Sirpur in chhatisgarh 4. Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha 5. Nagapattinam in TN 6. Rock cut elephant and Ashokan edicta at Dhauli, Odisha 7. Monatries (covered in next flashcard)

Answer 152

1. during the Gupta period, there emerged a new Buddhist institution, the Mahavihara (“Great Monastery”), which often functioned as a university 2. enjoyed great success during the reign of the Pala kings 3. presently at 5 places: 1. nalanda 2. Vikramshila 3. Sompura 4. Odantapuri 5. Jagaddala

Answer 153

1. Ladakh: 1. Hemis Monastery: famous for the annual festival of Guru Padmasambhava 2. Thiksey Monastery: noted for its resemblance to the Potala palace in Lhasa, Tibet 3. Alchi Gompa Monastery 4. Shankar Monastery: residence of the Abbot of Spituk , who is the senior incarnate lama of Ladakh 5. Matho Monastery 6. spituk monastery 7. Shey monastery 2. HP: 1. Tabo Monastery 2. Tsulglagkhang Monastery: home for His Holiness Dalai Lama and is situated in Maclodganj suburb of Dharamshala district 3. Shashur Monastery 4. Kye Gompa Monastery 5. Nako Monastery 6. Dhankar monastery 3. Sikkim: 1. Lingdum Monastery 2. Rumtek Monastery: also called the Dharmachakra centre; It is a gompa 4. Arunachal P: 1. Tawang Monastery:largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet 5. KN: Bylakuppe Monastery in Mysore; largest teaching centre of Nyingma lineage of Tibetan Buddhism 6. WB: Ghum Monastery

Answer 154

1. Deogarh, UP 2. Gwalior, Chanderi and Khajuraho in MP 3. Udaigiri and Khandagiri caves in Odisha 4. Akota (near Baroda) and Shatrunjay hills (Kathiawad) in GJ 5. Chausa in Bihar 6. Goomateswara statue at SravanaBelgola of Lord bahubali , son of first Jain tirthnkara, was built by Chamundarya 7. Dilwara temple of Mt. Abu: by Vimal shah 8. nasiyan temple at Ajmer 9. hathee Singh temple at Ahmedabad 10. Sittanavasal cave, TN

Answer 155

* roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. * It is stated in Tamil literature, that the 3 sangams lasted fr 9990 yrs

Answer 156

South India (the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra)

Answer 157

1. named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai. 2. eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies. 3. earliest specimens of Dravidian literature. 4. According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam. 1. The First Sangam, is believed to be held at ThenMadurai (south madurai), attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available. Founded by sage Agastya 2. The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this. 3. The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

Answer 158

1. **Tolkappiyam** was authored by **Tolkappiyar** and is considered the **earliest of Tamil** literary work. Though it is a **work on Tamil grammar** but it also provides **insights on the political and socio-economic** conditions of the time. 2. **Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies)** consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu. 3. The **Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls)** consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam. 4. **Pathinenkilkanakku** contains **eighteen works about ethics and morals**. The most important among these works is **Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar**, the tamil great poet and philosopher. 5. The **two epics: Silappathikaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar**. They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.

Answer 159

1. The Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mentioning about commercial trade contacts between the West and South India. 2. The Ashokan inscriptions mentioned about the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers to the south of Mauryan empire. * rock edicts II and XIII mentions Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas plus Keralaputra and Tambapanni 3. Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also has mention of Tamil kingdoms.

Answer 160

* collectively called Tamilakham * Cholas: central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu; core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as Cholamandalam * Cheras: central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. * Pandyas: southern part of TN

Answer 161

1. Kaveri delta, Tanjore and Trichinopoly; betn Pennar and Vellar rivers 2. first to acquire ascendency in S. India; conquered and ruled over by King Elara 3. capital: Uraiyur (near Tiruchirapalli town) and and Puhar or Kaviripattinam 4. Tiger was their emblem. 5. efficient navy; wealth frm cotton trade 6. King Karikala (190AD) was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas * extended rule over Ceylon * Pattinappalai portrays his life and military conquests. * Many Sangam poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated the confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains. * military achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil region of that time. * founded the port city of Puhar (identical with Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River. 7. info abt Cholas frm **Periplus of Erythrean sea** and accts of Ptolemy 8. power waned frm 4th cent AD

Answer 162

1. capital at Madurai; incl southern TN regions incl Tirunelveli and S. Travancore 2. Acc to Megasthenes, ruled by a woman once 3. sent an embassy to Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan 4. Greatest Pandyan king: Nedunchezhian who defeated Cholas and Cheras 5. Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving. Also importnat was the port of Saliyur 6. emblem was the “Fish 7. patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the Sangam poems. 8. kept a regular army. 9. Trade was prosperous and their pearls were famous. 10. Sati, caste, idol worship were common. Widows were treated badly. 11. adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests. 12. power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras. 13. After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than a century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century.

Answer 163

1. controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of TN 2. Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control. 3. emblem of Cheras was “bow and arrow”. 4. Pugalur inscription of the 1st century AD has reference to three generations of Chera rulers. 5. Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. Romans built 2 regiments at Muziris and Crangnore to protect their interests.They also built a temple of Augustus there. 6. greatest ruler of Cheras was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera or the Good Chera, who belonged to the 2nd century A.D. 1. His military achievements have been chronicled in epic Silapathikaram, with details about his expedition to the Himalayas by crossing Ganga where he defeated many north Indian rulers. 2. Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. 3. He was the first to send an embassy to China from South India.

Answer 164

1. two grps: narrative and didactic 1. Narrative: called Melkannakku or 18 major works * 8 Ettutogai: by poets of 3rd sangam * 10 Pattuppatu 2. Didactic: called Padinenkilkannaku or 18 minor works 2. Besides sangam texts, Tolkappiam by Tolkappiar, dealing with grammer and poetics; its the only work that has survived frm 2nd sangam 3. another imp Tamil text is Tirrukural * called Bible of Tamil land * deals with philosophy and wise maxims 4. Twin tamil epics: * both composed ~6th cent AD * Silappathikaram: written by Elango Adigal * Brahmanical tone * brightest gem of early Tamil lit * love story in which a dignitary named Kovalan prefers a courtesan calledMadhavi of Kaveripattanam over his lawfully wedded wife Kannagi * author apparently a Jain * Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar * Buddhism tone * Sittalai Sattanar was a grain merchant of Madurai * adventures of daughter born of union of Kovalan and Madhavi * more of religious interest than literary 5. another text considered epic: Sivaga Sindamani by Tiruttakadevar; Jain tone

Answer 165

1. hereditary monarchy; monarchs called Vendar and local chieftains were called Mannar;eldest son became the king 2. king identified with God; theory of divine right of kingship 3. Conspicuous absence of a privy council (advisory council) 4. rather assisted by wise men or officials. two types: 1. Aimperukulu: **Purohita, senapatiyar, Amaichar (ministers), priests (anthanar), envoys (duthar), spies (orrar)** etc. 2. Enperayam: accountants, officials, palace guards etc. 5. military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.

Answer 166

1. Parantaka's (Chola) inscription 'Uttar Meru' source 2. 'Gram Sabha' main body at village level and urcan cities level 3. Three types of Gram sabha 1. Ur: consisting of commoners; its executive body was called Aaluganm 2. Sabha/mahasabha: headed by those who received Agrahara (a piece of land granted by King to generally Brahmins) * Variyam was the na,e goven to the executive body; it consisted of 30-75peopl; elected by lottery systems fr 3 yrs 3. Nagaram: members were mainly traders

Answer 167

1. Self-sufficient 2. The chief source of state’s income was land revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade. 3. Major source of fulfilling the royal treasury was the booty captured in wars. 4. The roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling. 5. Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most common along with ragi and sugarcane 6. ind like textile,handicrafts incl ornaments, weapons making, ship building, trade with foreign countries esp rome 7. No system of coinage; barter system like honey, roots fr fish oil and toddy * coins of Roman king augustus discovered

Answer 168

1. military administration was **Rudimentary** bt efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler. 2. cavalary + infantry + elephantry 3. Head of battalions was called Nayakas 4. Captain of the army were invested with title of **enadi** at formal ceremonies 5. Army head was called Mahadandanayakas/Senapati

Answer 169

1. JS was there as suggested by term 'Nyayatar' 2. Although Sangam lit doesn't speak of any posts f judge, yet its believed that men of high caharac and standg and integrity acted as judges 3. King was supreme magistrate 4. Town court was called Avai; Village court was callled Manram, distributed across nadu (districts) and urs (towns)

Answer 170

Tolkappiyam refers to the Five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).

Answer 171

1. Acute caste distinctions didn't appear until much later 2. Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar(Ruling Class), anthanar, vanigar(carried on trade and commerce) and vellalar/vallangais(Agriculturists). 3. **kadaisiyars**: agri ops were generally carried on by labourers; lowest caste; similar to slaves 4. comparing to Vedic castes, only two classes are evident: Brahmins and Shudra (non-Brahmins); 5. Untouchables were called 'Parriyas': they were agri lab who worked in animal skin 6. rathraja: people engaged in chariot making 7. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

Answer 172

1. lot of info present in Sangam lit 2. Women had respect and were allowed intellectual pursuits.There were women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who flourished and contributed to Tamil literature. 3. Prevalence of devdasi system 4. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. But life of widows was miserable. 5. There is also a mention about the practice of Sati being prevalent in the higher strata of society.

Answer 173

1. primary deity of the Sangam period was Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. * The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin; festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature. 2. Murugan was honoured with **six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu**. 3. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were **Tirumal, Balram**, **Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indra), Varunan and Korravai**. 4. The **Hero Stone or Nadu Kal or virarkal worship** was significant in the Sangam period and was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors in the battle. 5. temples called as nagar, koli, kottam, purai and devalayam 6. worship of Kannagi was common 7. Vedic practices of yajna, sraadha and pinda common 8. varnasystem also took hold 9. influence of B, J and ajivikas significant 10. Megalithic practice of providing fr the dead continued

Answer 174

Kuruvar (Hunters): Murugan/ Skanda/ Kumara/ Katrikeya/ Subrahmanya Maravar (Warrior): Korravoi (Durga. Kali) Kurumbar (Shepherds): Krishna, Tirumala, Majon Ulavar (Peasant): Indra Parodwar (Fishermen): varuna

Answer 175

Nediyan, Pandya ruler

Answer 176

Manimekalai

Answer 177

1. Agstya 2. Agastya 3. Nakkirar

Answer 178

1. Tiruttakrdeva 2. Bharatman

Answer 179

Silappadikaram Manimekhalai Jivak Chintamani Valayapati Kundalakasi

Answer 180

1. Mst imp partner Rome 2. cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur: very high demand 3. imp port city: Puhar (most important place of foreign trade as big ships entered this port), Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam 4. Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and spices along with ivory products, pearls and precious stones 5. Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine 6. trades with Greek or Hellenistic kingdoms of Egypt and Arabia on west and with Malay archi and china on east 7. as a result, words fr rice, ginger, cinnamon etc similar in Tamil and Greek 8. discovery of monsoon (beginnig of 1st century AD) gave an impetus to the trade

Answer 181

1. T 2. T 3. T; under both Cholas and Pandyas 4. F

Answer 182

2nd Cent BC to 3rdCent AD

Answer 183

Indo-Greeks Sakas Parthians Kushanas cause: they were pushed east by the scythian tribes, who themselves were pushed because of the construction of the chinese wall. The seleucid rulers ruling Bactria and Parthian region were weak and could not defy the scythian tribes

Answer 184

1. Bactrian Greeks i.e. Greeks, Who ruled bactria, lying south of the oxus river in the area covered by the north Afghanistan 2. pushed by Scythian tribes

Answer 185

1. They pushed forward upto Ayodhya and Patliputra, but failed to establish United rule in India 2. Two Greek dynasty ruled North Western India on parallel lines at one and the same time 3. Most famous Indo Greek ruler: Menandar (165-145 BC), aka milinda. He was converted to Buddhism by nagsen, also known as Nagarjun. Their conversation regarding Buddhism is recorded in the form of a book known as mMilinda Panho. 4. They were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, unlike the earlier punch marked coins which cannot be assigned with certainty to any dynasty 5. They were the first to issue gold coins in India 6. Introduced hellenistic art in the North West frontier of India.

Answer 186

1. Controlled much larger part of India than the Greeks 2. Five branches of shakhas: 1. Afghanistan 2. punjab with Taxila at its capital 3. Mathura 4. Western India where they continue to rule the longest until 4th century AD 5. Upper Deccan 3. In 57 - 58 BC king of Ujjain succeed and driving them out. He called himself Vikramaditya, and an Era called the Vikram samvat started from 57 BC. Vikramaditya title became a coveted title, the most famous wink Chandragupta II 4. Most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (130-150 BC) who ruled parts of Gujarat, konkan, narmada Valley, malwa and kathiawar 1. He is famous for repair of Sudarshan lake in Kathiawar. It was used for irrigation 2. He was a great lover of Sanskrit and issued the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. In which was the first ever incidence of Kavya style

Answer 187

1. Ruled over parts of India on parallel lines with shakhas for sometime 2. Originally from Iran 3. Occupy the small portion of North Western India in the first century AD 4. Most famous for thinking was Gondophernes. * St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity in his time

Answer 188

1. also called Yuechis or Tocharians 2. They were Nomadic people from Steppes of North Central Asia living in the neighbourhood of China 3. As they replaced Shakha and parthians, their Empire extended from the oxus to the Ganga, from khurasan in Central Asia to Varanasi . Thus, they ruled over a large area comprising of present-day nine countries which allowed for cultural intermingling 4. There are two successive dynasty of Kushanas 1. kadphises (50-78AD): Kadphises I issued copper coins in imitation of Roman coins south of Hindu Kush. Kadphises II issued a large number of gold coins east of Indus 2. Kanishka: Extended Kushan power over lower Indus basin * Issued large no. of gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity than found in Gupta Gold coins * Their inscriptions are distributed as far as Kaushambi and Varanasi. Thus, their authority reached middle gangetic basin. Mathura was their second capital in India, in first being PurushaPur or Peshawar. * Kanishka is famous for two things: Patronage of mahayana Buddhism and starting the Shaka era in 78 AD * kanishka held a Buddhist council in Kashmir where doctrines of Mahayana buddhism were finalised * He was also a great Patron of Art and Sanskrit literature * kanishka rulers ruled up to 230AD * Some of them bore typical Indian names such as Vasudev showing their assimilation into Indian society

Answer 189

1. art 2. architecture 3. better cavalry 4. trade 5. agriculture 6. polity 7. religion 8. society 9. S&T 10. literature

Answer 190

1. typical pottery is red ware, both plain and polished * distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels 2. medium to thin fabric * red ware and thin fabric are similar to those found in central asian occupation of Kushanas 3. gandhara art 4. Mathura art: primarily indigenous; famous for headless erect statue of Kanishka and stone images of vardhaman Mahavira, It spre-Gupta sculptures ignore Krishna * famous for its red sandstone sculptures 5. In AndhraP, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati became great centres of Buddhist art and Buddhist stories were depicted in panels. * similar panels are also found in Gaya, Sanchi and bharhut 6. Greeks introduced use of curtains in theatre (calling curtains yavana)

Answer 191

1. distinct advace i building activities with several layers excavated 2. use of burnt bricks and tiles for flooring and roofing 3. period is marked by construction of brick walls 4. Buddhist caves were constructed out of rocks in MH

Answer 192

1. use of riding horse on a large scale 2. made common use of reins and ssaddles 3. introduced turban, tunic, trousers and heavy long coat (similar to present day sherwani) 4. brought in cap, helmet and boots used by warriors

Answer 193

1. trade with roman empire: brough in gold coins 2. Kushans controlled the silk route 3. Dogs, cattles, spices and ivory were exported by Greeks 4. embassies were exchanged with roman kings eg. sent to court of Augustus in 27-28 CE

Answer 194

1. earliest archaeological traces of large scale irrigation in Pak, afghanistan and western Central asia belong to Kushan period

Answer 195

1. feudatory organization 1. adopted the title of 'king of kings' 2. divine origin of kingship, called 'sons of gods' to,legitimize royal authority- (ref. Manu) 3. introduced satrap system: satrapies under satraps 4. curious practices like hereditary dual rule =\> less centralization 5. introduced practice of military governership to maintain control over conquered people. Appointed guvs called strategos

Answer 196

1. early Indo-Greek rulers were converted to Vaishnavism eg, Greek ambassador erected pillar in Vidisha in honour of Vasudeva 2. Later rulers converted to Buddhism eg. Menander 3. Kushan rulers worshipped Vishhnu, Shiva as well as Buddha 1. Kanishka- patronage to Mahayana Buddhism 2. a later Kushan ruler named Vasudeva 4. emergence of Mahayana Buddhism

Answer 197

1. They did not have their ownscript or organized religion; foreigners were completely indianized in due time 2. usually as kshatriya class; Manu says that Shakas and Parthians were kshatriyas who deviated form their paths, thus classified as second class kshatriyas 3. IN NO OTHER PERIOD OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WERE FOREIGNERS ASSIMILATED INTO INDIAN SOCIETY ON SUCH A LARGE SCALE AS THEY WERE IN THE POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

Answer 198

1. Indian astronomy and astrology profited , many Greek terms found in Sanskrit texts 2. Greek horoscope derive dfrom *horashastra* 3. Greek coins were improvement on punch marked coins; Kushan Au coins imitation of roman Au coins 4. Indians self-sufficient in Medicine, botany and chemistry 1. charaksamhita, oshadhi 5. working in glass was especially influenced by them and this period marks the high water point of glass works 6. leather shoes, turbans, long coats, military hats and warrior clothes

Answer 199

1. **Milind Panho** by Nagasen aka Nagarjuna, conversation with Menander describing questions regardig Buddhism 2. Kanishka saw over **second Buddhist council** in Kashmir thatsaw compilation of explanations of the three **pitakas** 3. they patronized sanskrit literature * earliest incription in **chaste sanskrit** by **Rudradaman I at Junagadh**. it wa salso the first in **kavya style** 4. Kushanas patronised 1. **Ashvaghosh**: wrote **Buddhacharita**, biography of Buddha * also composed **Saundarananda**, a sanskrit kavya 2. numerous **avadanas** (Mahayana Buddhist texts) in buddhist hybrid sanskrit eg. **Mahavastu** and **divyavadana** 5. best example of **secular lit** - **Kamasutra** of Vatsyayana (3rd cent CE)

Answer 200

1. large influx of people from central asia, many foreigners were non-vegetarians 2. big increase in trade and artisonal activities, some buddhist monks were eager to accept donations from them 3. patronage by Kanishka

Answer 201

1. imitation of coins: gold coins by Kanishka 2. embassies exchange : embassies sent to Augustus in 27-28CE and Trajan in 110-20CE 3. Gandhara art 4. silk route

Answer 202

is a [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit) text on [Ayurveda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda) It is one of the three works that constitute the [Brhat Trayi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brhat_Trayi). (other two being Sushruta Samhita and Ashtang Hridayam Samhita) Charaka lived in the mid 2nd century and was associated with the north-western part of India and the ancient university of Taksasila The text is based on the *Agnivesha Samhitā*, an eighth century BCE encyclopedic medical compendium by [Agniveśa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnivesa). It was revised by [Charaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charaka) between 100 BCE and 200 CE and renamed *Charaka Samhitā* The *Charaka Samhita* is often philosophical and ethical in its considerations and includes an Oath of Initiation that is akin to the Hippocratic Oath

Answer 203

The **Bṛhat-Trayī,** literally translated as "The Great Triad (Of Compositions)", refers to three early [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit) encyclopedias of medicine, which are the core texts of Ayurveda The following three works constitute the Bṛhat-Trayī: * [Charaka Samhita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charaka_Samhita) was composed by [Agnivesa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnivesa) and later edited by [Charaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charaka) * [Sushruta Samhita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita) was composed by [Sushruta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushruta) (सुश्रुत). * [Ashtanga Hridayam Samhita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtanga_Hridayam) (अष्टाग्ङहृदयसंहिता) was composed by [Vagbhata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagbhata) (वाग्भट) (fl. ca. AD 610, in Sindh)

Answer 204

ancient [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit) text on medicine and surgery was written by the famous physician and surgeon Susruta in the 6th century BCE (6th to 10th cent, exact period not known) who taught at the University of Benares Susruta was the first to practise rhinoplasty in India Interestingly, in neither the writings of Susruta or of Charaka is there any indication that animal dissection was practised. Their anatomical knowledge, therefore, appears to have been gleaned from human dissection.

Answer 205

an ancient [Indian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent) collection of interrelated [animal fables](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fable) in [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit) verse and prose The surviving work is dated to about 200 BCE, but the fables are likely much more ancient The text's author is unknown, but it has been attributed to [Vishnu Sharma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu_Sharma) in some [recensions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recension) and [Vasubhaga](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasubhaga&action=edit&redlink=1) in others, both of which may be fictitious pen names translated into various languages eg. *Kalilah wa Dimnah* in Arabic by Abdullah Ibn al Muqaffa

Answer 206

Although the tradition of art and culture in Indian subcontinent was started during the Indus Valley Civilisation, but lost the continuity in later period of time. Art and craft tradition got continuity only during the Mauryan Period. 1. Court art 2. Folk art

Answer 207

Chandragupta Maurya Palace features Wood was used as the main material. Especially in ceilings This palace had 80 pillars, these pillars were made up of single piece of rock. The floor and ceiling of the palace was made up of wood. The length and breadth of the whole palace was 140 ft. and 120 ft. respectively. The pillars have gold vines and silver Birds Attractive wooden stage in the Assembly. Greek traveler Megasthenes portray the castle of the Maurya Empire as probably the best creation of humanity and Chinese Traveller Fe Hien called Mauryan royal residences as God-gifted monuments. Yunaian traveller, Arian compared the grandeur of the Palace of Chandragupta Maurya with the palaces of Susha and Ekbatna (world's most famous cities of the that time) other examples: The Mauryan capital at Patliputra, Ashoka’s Palace at Kumrahar

Answer 208

* The best specimens of the modern period are the Monolithic pillars of Ashoka which are found in different parts of the country for the propagation of Dhamma. * monolithic stones * usually made up of chunar sandstone * Height of columns from 30 to 50 feet. * While most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit language, few were written in Greek or Aramaic language also. * usually composed of four parts. Namely Shaft, capital, Abacus, and capital figure. * Shaft: A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a single piece of stone or monolith. * Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped. * Abacus: Above the capital, there was a circular or rectangular base known as the abacus. * Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc) are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. * Example- Sarnath Lion Capital, Vaishali pillar, lauriya nandangarh, lauriya areraj.

Answer 209

* The **stupa** is a Sanskrit word that means a heap. * It originated as a **simple semi-circular mound of earth**, which was later called **Anda**. Gradually with time and the addition of artwork it evolved and got transformed into a more complex structure. The [tradition of](https://upsccolorfullnotes.com/category/art-and-culture/) erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated with Buddhism. * Diagram https: //1drv.ms/u/s!AvN\_8sA-Zf0djUlaP96lfP1rnBbS?e=Slg2gn * According the scriptures of Buddhism Ashoka had made 84000 stupas across the country. But this claim is controversial as evidences of such a huge number of stupas are not found but it is possible that they were demolished in later periods. * Stupas were **built at places that were regarded as sacred**. Sacred because these places were related to **Buddha’s life**. Relics of the Buddha such as his **bodily remains or objects used by him** were buried under these mounds and these mounds are known as **a stupa**. * In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the different events of Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc. * Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas. * structure * The simple semi-circular mound of earth is called **Anda**, above this anda is the **harmika**, a structure resembling a balcony it represents the abode of the gods. * Rising above from the harmika is a mast called the **Yashti**, often surmounted by a **chhatri** or umbrella. Around the mound is a railing known as Vedika. * The Circumbulatory path between the railing and the Anda is known as **Pradakshina.** * The Entrance gate is called **Torana**. * material used : The core of the stupa was made of unburnt brick while **the outer surface was made by using burnt bricks**, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster and medhi and the toran were decorated with wooden sculptures. * Examples * Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas. * Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one. * *stupas were built over eight set of relics. They are at Allakappa by Bulis (location unknown), atKapilvastu (modern day Piprahwa in UP) by Shakyas , at Kushinagar by Mallas, at Pava (near modern day Kushinagar), at Rajgriha (Magadhan capital) by Ajatshatru, at vaishali (capital of Vajjinas), at Ramagrama, a city of koliya kingdom (in modern day Nepal), and at Vethapida by Vethapida Brahmanas,* * Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory path.

Answer 210

* Viharas were basically the residences of Buddhist Monks. These were made by cutting mountains in either rectangular or circular form. * During the Maurya time caves were utilized as “viharas” the living quarters by the Jain and Buddhist priests. The caves during the Mauryan period are marked by a highly polished finish of the inside walls and carved gateways. * Important examples of Viharas in Bihar are Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves in Gaya. These were made by mainly Ashoka and his grandson Dashratha. * Some other examples of Viharas(Buddhist Caves) are Sudama, Karna, Chaupar, Gopi, Vaddhika, Vishwa Jhopdi etc.

Answer 211

also seen as part of royal pillars examples Lauria Nandangarh East Champaran, Bihar Lion Lauria Areraj East Champaran, Bihar Ox Rampurva I & II west Champaran, Bihar Ox Sarnath Lion Sankisha, UP elephant In folk art, The Statue of yaksha and Yakshi are the most important sculptures from this period. these were the object of worship related to all the religions i.e. Jainism Buddhism and Hinduism. These sculptures were made up of stone. On these sculptures shiny polish was used to be done, which adds to their beauty and sculptures became more realistic examples: A statue of two Jain saints from lohanipur, The sculpture of a woman and a boy from Bulandi Bagh and Yakshini statue found at Didar Ganj, Jain tirthankar statue from Lohanipur, Patna.

Answer 212

These potteries were being made by people for their daily needs as well as for decorative purposes one of the most characteristic features. Pottery of the Mauryan period is usually referred to as Northern black polished ware (NBPW). The pottery was characterized by Black paint and a highly lustrous finish was Generally used as a luxury item. Kaushambi and Patliputra were the centers of NBPW pottery.

Answer 213

comparison with Persian (Achaemenian) pillars similarities * Polished Stones and Motifs: Both Maurya and Achaemenian pillars, used polished stones and have certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus. * Proclamations: Maurya’s idea of inscribing proclamations (related to Buddhist teachings and court orders) on pillars has its origin in Persian pillars. * Third Person: Inscriptions of both empires begin in the third person and then move to the first person. Differences * The Capital Figure: It was absent in Mauryan pillars of the Kumhrar hall whereas pillars at Persepolis have the elaborate capital figures. * The Shape and Ornamentation: The shape of Mauryan lotus is different from the Persian pillar. * Pillar Surface: Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted/ ridged surface while the Mauryan pillars have a smooth surface. * Architectural Scheme: The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, and bit complex and complicated, while the Ashokan pillars were simple and independent freestanding monuments. * Shaft: Unlike Mauryan shafts which are built of monolith (single piece of stone), Persian/Achaemenian shafts were built of separate segments of stones (aggregated one above the other).

Answer 214

The Mauryan Art is a valuable treasure of India it gives us pride and self-confidence The workmanship and design of this period were moderate, liberal, and common in nature. The worth of stupa at Sanchi and bull capital at Sarnath portray the significance and stand as a declaration to this brilliant time of Indian history. Apart from the national emblem of India and state Emblem of Bihar, Mauryan art is also present at Rashtrapati Bhavan, The new Parliament building is going to be made on the Sanchi Stupa model. The name Bihar is derived from the word viharas i.e. residence of Buddhist monks. Mauryan arts give evidence of centralized administration of kingdoms and their continuity in Bihar.

Answer 215

Many historians such as John Marshall and Persi Brown considered that the Mauryan Art was influenced with (inspired from) Iranian Art Forms. Some of them said that the Mauryan Palace was a carbon copy of the palaces of Armenian Empire of Iran. Pillars of Mauryan Period was also considered as the inspiration of Iranian pillars with slight variations in their architecture. Mauryan Art (especially court Art){ was highly religious in nature, which restricted the appearance of cultural ethos and other aspects of the society of that period.

Answer 216

developed during the medieval period between 8th-12th century under the aegis of Pal rulers. Pal rulers were Buddhist followers, which can be seen in the art forms of Palas very easily. Pal Art included various forms of art and crafts which include a splendid Architectural art forms (Mahavihar, Chaityas, Temples and Stupas), sculptures (bronze and stone made) and Paintings (manuscript and wall Paintings). 1. Architectural art forms 2. paintings 3. sculptures

Answer 217

1. Mahaviharas 2. Chaityas 3. Temples 4. Stupas

Answer 218

* Mahaviharas were made during Pal rule mainly for residential purposes for Buddhist monks. But Mahavihars also served as important Buddhist educational centers. * Mahaviharas were generally in rectangular in structure, which included an open courtyard in the middle. * All around the courtyard, porch/veranda was used to be made, in which gates of rooms were opened. * Some Mahaviharas in which gates of rooms were opened. * Some Mahaviharas had double storeyed rooms and stairs for the 2nd storey rooms were made in the courtyard. * Diagram https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN\_8sA-Zf0djUY7WfyCmwtWw2mI?e=8E4Z7Y * some important Mahaviharas Vikramshila Mahavihar: Bhagalpur by Dharmapal Odantpuri Mahavihar: Biharsharif by Gopala Sompur Mahavihar: Naogaon (BN) by Dharmapal

Answer 219

These were basically a kind of Buddhist temples. The tradition of building Chaityas were old but these got diversification during Pal rule. Many remains of Chaityas can be found from different parts of Bihar.

Answer 220

Although Pal rulers were Buddhist but they also made many temples of Hinduism. These temples were basically made in the famous Nagar style. examples Gufa mandir at Kahalgaon, Bhagalpur Vishnupad Mandir at Bodh Gaya; an imp feature of this temple is Ardh Mandap

Answer 221

Although culture of stupas were ancient but some stupas were also made during Pal period with slight differentiation. Stupas had multiple parts, which include Yashti, Chhatra, Harmika, Gumbad, Pradakshina Path, Vedika, and Toran Dwar. Diagram https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN\_8sA-Zf0djUcldx3J10VS5Set?e=ueZefR

Answer 222

1. Manuscript paintings 2. wall paintings

Answer 223

done generally on copper plate. These were used for decorating purposes. The colours used in these paintings were red, black, blue, green, white and violet. examples 'Ashtasahasarikpragyaparamita' and 'Panchraksh'. Both of these paintings are archived in Cambridge Museum (England).

Answer 224

Besides manuscript painting, wall paintings were also used to be done on the walls of Mahavihar, Chaityas, temples etc. In these paintings various elements like fruits, flowers, animals, humans, birds and trees were imprinted. One of the best examples of wall paintings of Pal period is a wall painting found from Saraikila (Nalanda). In this painting a woman can be seen doing make-up, while looking into a mirror. This painting shows the human emotions along with art simultaneously.

Answer 225

The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors It is influenced by Gupta Art During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp 1. Bronze sculptures 2. Stone sculptures

Answer 226

Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold These are made up of bronze using molds. One of the main characteristic features of these sculpture were excellent ornamentation used in them. Another important feature of these sculptures was that they were plain from behind despite being ornamented and decorated from front. Dhiman and Vithpal were two important sculptors of Nalanda, they were contemporary of Dharma Pal and Devpal (Pal rulers). Bronze sculptures are found in large numbers from Kulkihar (Gaya), Nalanda and Sultanganj. These sculptures can be compared with the aesthetics of the Natraj sculptures of Chola Empire. These sculptures were mainly religious in nature, which include sculptures various god and goddesses of Hindus and Buddhists. Important examples of this sculpture style were of Buddha, Vishnu, Balram, Bodhisatavas etc.

Answer 227

Besides Bronze sculptures, sculptures were also made out of stones. The stones used for making these sculptures were mainly basalt. Which were brought from either Munger or Santhal Pargana. Similar to bronze sculptures, ornamentation was also done in stone-made sculptures.

Answer 228

Architectures in Pal period were generally made out of burnt Bricks instead of stones and rocks, which resulted into lesser permanence and availability now. Sculptures of Pal art were plain from behind and only focus was on front. Ornamentation was heavily used in the Pal sculptures, which hide the real beauty of the sculptures. In Pal art religious aspects had more prominence that social, cultural and political aspects.

Answer 229

The Pal rulers maintained the tradition of art and culture developed during Mauryan Period raised them to a new level. Multiple art forms developed vehemently during the period of Pal rulers. Despite the triangular conflict among Palas, Rashtrakutas and Gurjar-pratihars for occupation of Kannauj, various art forms were flourished during the Pal periods without any impediments. The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under the Sena Empire.

Answer 230

world's first independent school of painting which dealt exclusively with the commoner and his lifestyle Principal centers were Patna, Danapur and Arrah. origin features artists present status

Answer 231

* is an off-shoot of Mughal painting. * The origins of Patna Kalam are obscure and largely known from Ishwari Prasad’s account : the artists, a family of Kayasths, first lived in the Partabgarh district of Udaipur Rajputana, then migrated to the Mughal court around the 16th century. Declining patronage during the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707) was probably why the artists migrated to Murshidabad where, in addition to painting for their Nawabi patrons, they also created portraits for the European gentry. * However, in the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey (c.1757), Mir Jaffar’s son Miran alias Mohamed Sadiq Khan – ‘Nasir-ul-Mulk, Ala-u-Dowlah’ – drove the Hindu artists, amidst others, to migrate once more – this time to Patna. This group of migrants laid the foundation of what is now known as the Patna School of Painting. In Patna they came under patronage of local aristocracy and often Indophile scions of the early EIC * watercolour painting of the Chhat Festival of Bihar is believed to be one of the earliest examples of painting made for the British by Indian artists in Patna. In the painting, you see women gathered at the banks of the river, making offerings to the Sun God.

Answer 232

* regarded as an off-shoot of Mughal painting, with influences from Persian and the Company painting style developed for British customers * portraits can be clearly seen having colours and linings from Mughal style, and the shading can be seen to be adopted from the British style * But distinct from Mughal paintings as well * Diverging from the Mughal and Persian style of wide and exquisitely decorated borders, Patna Kalam primarily focused on the subject of the painting. * Unlike Mughal painting, which focused on the royalty and court scenes, flag bearers of Patna Kalam were deeply influenced by daily life of common man, also a common subject in Company painting. * The Patna School tradition developed an individualistic style and technique, very different from the usual Mughal School (due to the the Persian influence) and the less formal Rajput School. Moreover, the Patna artists made their own pigments, brushes and paper as their ancestors did in the Mughal courts. * The color scheme of the Patna paintings underwent a change over the period of its evolution. The bright Mughal colors gave way to the fashionable somber hues of the print (when the picture was intended for a European market). * Patna paintings have a formalized precision, and are characterized by the perfect contours in facial features. * Pigments used to paint the subjects were derived from readily available natural sources. eg. Safaida color from a particular kind of earth from Kashgar, Blue from Indigo, red from red earth found near Kanpur * Their main subjects were local festivals, ceremonies, bazaar scenes, local rulers, and domestic activities * The paintings were done on diverse surfaces such as paper, mica, and even ivory diskettes, that were used as brooches. * A distinguishing characteristic of Patna Kalam is lack of any landscape, foreground or background. * Another characteristic was the development in the shading of solid forms. * In the early pictures shadow was painted by the old Mughal technique -darker tones of the same colour were applied. In the later versions of the painting, the shadow is shown with soft washes of color, just as in an English watercolor. https: //i1.wp.com/www.theheritagelab.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Patna-Kalam-19thc.jpg?ssl=1 * Patna Kalam paintings are painted straightway with the brush without marking with pencil to delineate the contours of the picture and the procedure of painting is popularly known as 'Kajli Seahi.'

Answer 233

* Some well known painters of Patna Kalam were Sewak Ram, Hulas Lall, Shiv Lal, Shiva Dayal, Mahadeo Lal, and Ishwari Prasad Verma. * some famous paintings Nautch girls in a court (1860) – Shiva Lal Passenger in an Ekka by Shiva Lal (circa 1820-80). Patna * Sewak Ram * was an artist retained in the Durbar of the then Maharaja of Benares * In 1790, he migrated to Patna after his patron’s death and worked in the city until 1826. * An unusual feature of Sewak Ram’s work was the Kajli seahi technique, which required considerable skill in painting what were really ‘miniatures’. The smaller the dimensions of the picture, more difficult was the required brush touch. * Through his work, we get a glimpse into the festivals, culture and lives of people in Patna, icl Chhat, Holi, Muharram and Cattle fairs. * Shiva Lal and Shiva Dayal * From 1850 to 1880, Patna painting was dominated by the work of two brothers * Shiva Lal was called the Shahi Musavvir. The ‘Shahi’ salutation indicates that his family originally worked for the royal atelier (Mughals). * Shiva Dayal was retained in the Durbar of Rai Sultan Bahadur, a Rais of Patna City. * Ishwari Prasad * grandson of Shiva Lal

Answer 234

In the last decade of the 19th century, after the death of Shiva Lal and Shiva Dayal Lal, their studios too ceased to exist. One of the main reasons for the collapse was the advent of photography. The new technology fascinated everyone and reproductions of ‘Indian life’ became quicker and were surely more reliable. Only three collections of Patna Kalam paintings exist in Bihar, one at the Patna Museum and others at Khuda Baksh library, Patna, and Patna University’s College of Arts and Crafts.

Answer 235

* Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from the vedic period. but it got development and current form during Mauryan period. * Diagram https: //1drv.ms/u/s!AvN\_8sA-Zf0djUlaP96lfP1rnBbS?e=Slg2gn * According the scriptures of Buddhism Ashoka had made 84000 stupas across the country. But this claim is controversial as evidences of such a huge number of stupas are not found but it is possible that they were demolished in later periods. * Stupas were the palace of worship for Buddhists. it became an Emblem of Buddha Dharma and an important part of Buddhist monasteries. * In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the different events of Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc. * Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas. * consists of a hemispherical dome-shaped called under, harmika and 17 on the topic. sometimes there were circular Pathways and gateways. * material used : The center of the Stupa was of an unburnt break while the inverse external surface was made by utilizing consumed blocks, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster, and also the Toran was decorated with wooden sculptures. * Examples * Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas. * Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one. * Stupas built after the death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana. * Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory path.

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