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Ancient India history Flashcards

1
Q

Six hetrodox schools of Philosophy?

A
  • didn’t believe in originality of Vedas and questioned existence of God
    1. Nyaya
    2. Samkhya
    3. Vaisheshika
    4. Purva Mimansa
    5. Vedanta (uttar Mimansa)
    6. Yog
  • Samkhya and Vaisheshika: materialistic view of life
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2
Q

Nyaya school?

A
  1. 6th cent BC
  2. Gautama
  3. Nyay sutra
  4. highlights:
    1. system of logic, systematic reasoning and thinking
    2. salvation thu acquisition of knowledge
    3. truth can be found through inference, hearing and analogy
    4. On God, they believe, universe was created by God’s hands; God creates, sustains and destroys the world
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3
Q

Vaishesika school?

A
  1. 6th cent BC
  2. Kanada
  3. vaisheshika sutra
  4. highlights
    1. physicality of universe
    2. 5 main elemets/dravya
    3. reality has many categories: action, attribute, genus, inherence, substance and distinct qlty
    4. believed in atomic theory
    5. GOD: believe in god and sees him as the guiding principle
    6. believed in laws of karma; God sees merits and demerits and sends our souls to heaven or hell
    7. believed in salvation, as well as cyclic process of creation and destruction of universe
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4
Q

Sankhya school?

A
  1. 6th cent BC- oldest among all 6
  2. by Kapil muni
  3. Samkhya Sutra
  4. ‘Samkhya’ -> count
  5. highlights:
    1. salvation by acquisition of true knowledge and lack of it is the true causeof man’s misery
    2. believed in dualism i.e. dvaitvada i.e. soul and matter are separate entities
    3. knowledge can be acquired thru three tools: pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda (hearing)
    4. famous fr scientific system of enquiry
  6. two phases of development:
    1. Original Samkhya view:
      • 1st cent AD
      • presenc eof any divine agency nt necessary fe creation of univrse
      • propounded a rational and scientific view of creation of universe
      • world existed coz of prakriti i.e. nature
      • considered a materialistic school of philosophy
    2. Later Samkhya view
      • 4th cent AD
        along with prakriti, Purusha or spirit was needed fr creation of uni
      • propounded a spiritual view of creation of universe
      • more spiritual school of philosophy
      • Prakriti and Purusha are absolute and independent
      • Purusha closer to attributes of male, associated with consciousness and cannot be challenged or altered
      • Prakriti related to 3 attributes- thought, movement and transformation- and thus closer to a woman
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5
Q

Vedanta school?

A
  1. aka Uttar mimansa
  2. 4th cent BC
  3. Bhadrayan
  4. Brahmsutra
  5. highlights:
    1. philosophies of life as elaborated in upanishads
    2. everything real in life: Brahma; everything unreal: maya
    3. atma or consciousness of self is similar to brahma
    4. thus, knowledge of self = knowledge of brahma = salvation
    5. brahma and atma indestructible and eternal
    6. believed in karma theory as well as punarjanma
  6. evolved in 9th cent AD through philosophical interventions of Shankaracharya, who led to Advaita sub- school
    1. brahma has no attributes
    2. all living beings as well as Brahma one and the same;
    3. knowledge aka gyan- of this singularity- main means of attaining salvation
  7. 12th cent AD: Ramanujan’s Vishist-advaitvad emerged
    1. Brhma has certain attributes
    2. all living beings are the same and are a part of the divine Brahma; thus Brahma is like a superset, distinct frm living beings who are all the same
    3. loving the faith and devotion are path to attain salvation
  8. 14th cent AD: Madhavacharya’s Dvaitvad
    1. all living beings are different frm each other, as they appear, and also distinct frm Brahma who is ilke a separate divine entity
    2. way of salvation: devotion and faith
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6
Q

Mimansa school?

A
  1. 4th cent BC
  2. Jaimini (creator); other stalwarts- Sabar swami and Kumarila Bhatta
  3. Purva Mimansa Sutra
  4. highlights:
    1. literal meaning- easoning, interpretation and application
    2. focusse son analysis of samhitas and brahmanas
    3. Vedas contain eternal truth and all the knowledge
    4. to attain salvation, do ur duties acc to vedas- increased importance of Brahmans
    5. salvation- freedom frm cycle of birth-death- possible through performing rituals bt with understndg of them
    6. believed in karma- heaven and hell
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7
Q

Materialistic schools of life?

A
  1. developed during the time expanding economy and society betn 5th cent BC to 3rd cent AD; after 5th centAD, began to be eclipsed by idealist theories
  2. among the heterodox schools, samkhya and vaisheshika
  3. also appear in Ajivika sect of Buddhism
  4. Lokayata philosophy
    1. by Charvaka
    2. literal meaing- ideas derived frm people
    3. lack of belief in other world and connect to loka (world) that can be experiened using human senses
    4. no need to strive fr salvation
    5. no divine or supernatural agency; man is the centre of all
    6. ‘borrow to eat well’
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8
Q

Adi Shankaracharya?

A

recent context: A 12-foot statue of Adi Shankaracharya has been unveiled at Kedarnath, where the acharya is believed to have attained samadhi at the age of 32 in the ninth century.

● Born in Kaladi village on the bank of the Periyar, the largest river in Kerala.
● He was a disciple of the scholar Govindacharya.
● He was constantly on the move — bearing the flag of Advaita Vedanta, challenging prevailing philosophical traditions including Buddhism and Jainism.
● He is believed to have established the ritual practices at the Badri and Kedar dhams.

● Adi Shankara is generally identified as the author of 116 works — among them the celebrated commentaries (bhashyas) on 10 Upanishads, the Brahmasutra and the Gita, and poetic works including Vivekachudamani, Maneesha Panchakam, and Saundaryalahiri.
● He also composed texts like Shankarasmrithi, which seeks to establish the social supremacy of Nambuthiri Brahmins.

● The essence of Adi Shankara’s philosophy is encapsulated in the much quoted formulation: “brahma satyam jagan-mithya, jivo brahmaiva naaparah”

He advocated Advaita Vedanta

● Advaita Vedanta articulates a philosophical position of radical nondualism, a revisionary worldview which it derives from the ancient Upanishadic texts.
● According to Advaita Vedantins, the Upanishads reveal a fundamental principle of nonduality termed ‘brahman’, which is the reality of all things.
● Advaitins understand brahman as transcending individuality and empirical plurality.
● They seek to establish that the essential core of one’s self (atman) is brahman. The fundamental thrust of Advaita Vedanta is that the atman is pure non-intentional consciousness.
● It is one without a second, nondual, infinite existence, and numerically identical with brahman

Criticism:

● Custodians of the caste system cite from Shankara’s commentaries to justify the unequal and unjust social order, whereas others claim these are extrapolations and point to works like Maneesha Panchakam to suggest a different reading of the acharya’s outlook.
● Among the interpreters of his philosophy would be those who suggested that the Advaita Vedanta borrowed the categories of Buddhist thinkers and called him the Prachhanna Buddha (Buddha in disguise), to Sri Narayana Guru who in the 20th century offered a radical reading of Advaita Vedanta to dismantle the theory and praxis of caste.

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9
Q

Yoga school?

A
  1. 2nd cent BC
  2. Patanjali
  3. Yogasutra
  4. highlights
    1. salvation= meditation + physical yogic techniques
    2. yogic techniques, asanas, will lead to release of purusha frm prakriti
    3. means of achieving freedom:
      • ​​Yama
      • Niyama
      • Pratyahara
      • Dharna
      • Dhyana
      • Samadhi
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10
Q

ealiest Indian coins?

A

5th cent BC

called punch marked coins

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11
Q

Jainism: Mahavira: family?

A
  1. born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
  2. His parents were Kshatriyas.
  3. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother – Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka King Bimbisara).
  4. He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
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12
Q

Jainism: Mahavira: life history?

A
  1. born at Kundagrama near Vaisali in 540BC
  2. At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic
  3. after wandering fr 12 yrs, attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnan at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is called Kaivalya
  4. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds) and Kevalin
  5. preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha) aged 72.
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13
Q

Jainism : Tirthankaras?

A
  1. Mahavir- founder
    • symbol: lion
    • 24th tirthankara (last)
  2. propounded the theory of 24 jain tirthankaras; all kshatriyas and frm royal families
  3. first: Rishabha -
    • male nude torso discovered frm IVC has something to do with him
    • symbol is Bull
    • name mentioned in Rigveda
    • Vishnur Purana and Bhagvat Purana calls him incarnation of narayana
  4. 23rd: Parsvanath (9th or 8th cent BC)
    • symbol: serpent
    • He is the only Tirthankara who gained the title of Kalīkālkalpataru (Kalpavriksha in this Kali Yuga).
    • He is one of the earliest Tirthankaras who are acknowledged as historical figures.
    • He was the earliest exponent of Karma philosophy in recorded history.
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14
Q

Jainism : Teachings?

A
  1. rejected authority of Vedas and vedic rituals
  2. didn’t believe in God; even if it existed, placed below Jina
  3. believed in Karma and transmigration of souls; talked of Uhsarpini (origin) and Avsarpini (decline) of the Chakra of life.
  4. Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious)
  5. every particle has soul (belief in universal soul) and karma is its bane and therefore karma must be ended. ‘surest way to end karma is to practice penance’
  6. Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity and self-mortification were expounded
  7. Three ratnas or practices to attain nirvana:
    1. Samyak Vishwas (Right faith) in Lord Mahavira
    2. Samyak Jnan (Right knowledge) of doctrines of jainism
    3. Samyak Karma (Right Conduct) i.e. fulfillment of 5 vows of jainism
      1. Ahimsa
      2. Truthfulness
      3. no stealing
      4. no acquisition of property
      5. chastity or brahmcharya
      • 1-4 given by Parsvanath (Chaturyama Dharma); last one added by Mahavir
  8. every Chakra has 24 tirthankaras, 63 great men and 12 Chakravarti kings
  9. Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism. But he also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not birth.
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15
Q

Jainism : two types of philosophy?

A
  1. Syadvada: All truths relative and conditional i.e. multifacetedness of truth; saptabhangi (7 modes of predicament) are possible; absolute affirmatin as well as negation both wrong
  2. Anekantavada: jain metaphysics; doctrine of ‘manyness of reality’; matter (pudgala) and spirit (jiva) separate realities
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16
Q

Jainism: the great schism?

A
  1. into Svetambars and Digambars in 288BC
  2. why?
    1. serious famine in 4th cent BC in Ganges valley
    2. exodus of Jains under Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu to deccan- Sravana Belgola
    3. those who stayed back lived under leadership of Sthalabahu
    4. in the 12 yrs, Southern branch lived separately, Sthalabahu allowed wearing white cloth, which was rejected by the returnees
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17
Q

Other Jain sects?

A
  1. yapaniyan:
    1. KN
    2. came out of Swetamabra
    3. mentioned in inscription of Vikramaditya VI
  2. Pujiramat
    1. came out of Swetambara
    2. supported idol worship
  3. terapainthi: came out of Swetambara
  4. Sammiya: came out of Digambara
  5. Bispanthi:
    1. came out of Swetambara
    2. supported idol worship
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18
Q

Jain literature?

A
  1. original Mahavira doctrine contained in 14 old texts called Purvas, passedorally and compiled later as 12 Angas
  2. Svetambaras’ sacred litearure written in Prakrit variant called ardhamagadhi and classified as
    1. 12 angas
    2. 12 Upangas
    3. 10 Parikaranas
    4. 6 Chhedasmras
    5. 4 Mulasutras
    6. Niryuktis and Churinis
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19
Q

Jain councils?

A
  1. First:
    1. at Patliputra
    2. by Sthalbahu
    3. beginnin of 3rd cent BC
    4. resulted in compilation of 12 angas and 12 upangas
  2. second:
    1. at Valabhi
    2. under Devaradhi Kshamasramana
    3. 5th cent AD
    4. resulted in final compilation of the 12 Angas an 12upangas
    5. Svetambara Agama was finally edited at the Jain council of Vallabhi.
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20
Q

Jainism : spread?

A
  1. mahavira organized an order of his followers fr spread of Jainism
    • admitted both men and women
    • didn’t mark Jainism very clearly frm Brahaminism, thus failed to attract masses
  2. gradually spread in south and west India
    • in KN, due to chandragupta Maurya
  3. spread to Kalinga in 4th Cent BC and enjoyed patronage of Kalinga ruler Kharavela in 1st cent BC; also reached TN in 2nd and 1st cent BC; later penetrated Malwa, GJ and RJ
  4. Jains built stupas with railings, pillars and gateways; hathi Gumphas, udaigiri and Khandagiri caves of Odisha contain Jain relics and inscriptions
  5. mathura became centre of Jain art during Kushana pd
  6. stautes of Gomateshwara (Sravana Belgola, Mysore), palithana (GJ) and Karakala are eg of Jain architecture
  7. Dilwara temple at Mt. Abu and temples at Ranakpur
  8. discarded Sanskrit and adopted Prakrit; composed the earliest important works in apabhramsha and prepared its first grammer; in the process, contributed to many local languages too.
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21
Q

Jainism: 5 categories of Siddhas?

A
  1. Tirthankaras: attained salvation
  2. Arhat: abt to attain nirvana
  3. Acharya: head of ascetic grp
  4. Upadhyaya: teacher or saint
  5. Sadhu: rest
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22
Q

Jainism: patronage by?

A
  • South India
  1. Kadamba dynasty
  2. Ganga dynasty
  3. Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta dynasty)
  4. Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)
  • North India
  1. Haryanka dynasty
    1. Bimbisara
    2. Ajatasatru
  2. Maurya dynasty
    1. Chandragupta Maurya
    2. Bindusara
  3. Harshavardhana
  4. Ama
  5. Kharavela
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23
Q

Parsvanath?

A

son of king Ashvasena and queen Varna of Varanasi. He achieved Nirvana on the Samniet Sikhar. He lived in Varanasi around 800 BC

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24
Q

Which Tirthankaras was according to the Svetamber tradition, a lady?

A

Svetambaras maintain that the 19th Tirthankara, Mallinath, was a woman. They also believe that women are able to obtain Moksha.

Following names also appear feminine bt aren’t ladies

Sumatinatha was the fifth Jain Tirthankar, Lord Shantinath the sixteenth and Arishtanemi, also called Neminatha, the 22nd of the 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism.

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25
Q

The Jain Tirthankara Mahavira has been mentioned in the early Buddhist literature as?

A

In the Buddhist Pali Canon, Mahavira is referred to as Nigantha Nataputta.

A person who has attained Kevalva can be a Nigantha.

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26
Q

The first meeting of Makkhali Gosala with Mahavir Swami was held at?

A

Nalanda

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27
Q

Which one of the following is not a part of early Jains literature?

A) Therigatha

B) Acharanga sutra

C) Sutrakritanga

D) Brihatkalpasutra

A

Therigatha is not a part of early Jains literature. The Therigatha is a Buddhist scripture, a collection of short poems supposedly recited by early members of the Buddhist Sangha in India around 600 BC

Acharanga sutra and Sutrakritanga are the first two angas of Jain literature

Brihatkalpasutra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira

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28
Q

Who became the chief of Jain Sangh after the death of Mahavira?

A) Indrabhuti

B) Jambu

C) Sthulbhadra

D) Sudharma

A

one of his disciple Sudharma Swami is said to have taken over me leadership, He was the head of Jain community till 515 BCE.

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29
Q

Vikramshila Mahavihar was founded by

A) Harsha

B) Gopal

C) Kumarpal

D) Dharmapal

A

In 8th century. King Dharampal of Pal dynasty formed the world famous Vikramshila Mahavihar in Antichak village, Kahalgaon.

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30
Q

The first Jain council was convened during the reign of

A) Bimbisara

B) Shisunaga

C) Mahapadamnand

D) Chandragupta Maurya

A

D

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31
Q

In which of the following places, Mahavir Swami gave his first sermon?

A) Vaishali

B) Rajgriha

C) Nalanda

D) Champa

A

Rajgriha

Bhagwan Mahavirs first sermon (called ‘Divya-Dhwanr) was delivered on ‘Vipulachala Hill’ near ‘Rajgrahi’.

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32
Q

In which Jain council, Jain dharm was divided in Svetamber and Digamber?

A) First council

B) Second council

C) Third council

D) Fourth council

A

The first Jain council (conference) of monks was held in Pataliputra about 160 years after Lord Mahavira’s nirvana. Monk Bhadrabahu, who had the knowledge of all 12 Angas, could not be present at that meeting. The rest of the monks could compile only the first eleven Angas by recollection and thus, the twelfth Anga was lost. The monks from the South did not agree with this compilation, and the first split in Jainism started. Jains divided into two main groups, Svetambaras and Digambaras.

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33
Q

Who was the author of Kalpasutra?

A) Vasumitra

B) Hemchandra

C) Bhadrabahu

D) Sthulbhadra

A

The Kalpa Sutra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras. Bhadrabahu is considered the author of the text and it is traditionally said to have been composed about one hundred and fifty years after Nirvana of Mahavira.

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34
Q

The custom Santhara is related to which of the following sects?

A) Jain

B) Buddha

C) Shaiva

D) Vaishnava

A

The custom Santhara is related to Jain sects. Santhara, a Jain spiritual practice which entails a voluntary giving up of one’s life through fasting.

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35
Q

Who became the first follower of Mahavira?

A) Jamali

B) Yashoda

C) Aanojja

D) Trishala

A

Mahavira was married to Yashoda and produced a daughter whose husband, Jamali, became the first disciple

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36
Q

Who installed the grand image of Gomateshwar at Shravanbelgola?

A) Chamundaraya

B) Krishna I

C) Kumar Pal

D) Tejpal

A

The grand image of Gomoteshwara was installed by Chavundaraya in 988 AD at Sharavanbelgola. Chamundaraya was a military commander, poet and a minister in the court of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad in present day Karnataka,

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37
Q

Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer by from the codes given below the lists:

List-I (Tirhankara) List-II (Birth place)

A. Rishabhanatha 1. Kashi

B. Sambhavanatha 2. Kausambi

C. Padmanamprabhu 3. Saravasti

D. Parashvanath 4. Ayodhya

A

Rishabhnath- ayodhya

Sambhavanath - Sravasti

Padmanamprabhu- Kausambi

Parsvanath- Kashi

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38
Q

Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes given below:

List-I (Jain Tirthankara) List-II (Birth place)

A. Ajitnath 1. Kashi

B. Vimalnath 2. Hastinapur

C. Shantinath 3. Kampilya

D. Parshavanath 4. Ayodhya

A

Ajitnath - Ayodhya

Vimalnath - Kampilya

Shantinath - Hastinapur

Parshvanath- Kashi

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39
Q

Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists:

List-I (Jain Tirthankars) List-II (Cognizance)

A. Santi Natha 1. Antelope

B. Malli Natha 2. Lion

C. Parswa Natha 3. Serpent

D. Mahavira 4. Water jar

A

C

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40
Q

Rajvaliya Katha?

A

The important occasion of Chandragupta Maurya’s reign was the forecast of a twelve years famine. At that time Acharya Bhadrabahu was the head of the Jain church. According to the Jain text Rajvaliya Katha, the king saw sixteen dreams. He requested Bhadrabahu to interpret the dreams. The latter explained all the dreams and according to the last one, he predicted a famine of twelve years. Chandragupta, who was a follower of Bhadrabahu, gave up his throne

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41
Q

Statement I: Mahavira initially joined a group of ascetics called Nigranthas. Statement II: The sect was founded 200 years earlier by Parsva.

A

Both are true bt 2 doesn’t explain 1

Mahavira was not the founder of Jain religion but simply a reformer.

This sect of the Nigranthas was an important sect at the rise of Buddhism. This may be inferred from the fact that they are frequently mentioned in the pitakas as opponents of Buddha and his disciples.

This conclusion is further supported by another fact. Mankkhali Gosala, a contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira divided mankind into six classes, of these the third class contained the Nigranlhas

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42
Q

Which of the following archeological sites is famous for Jain temples?
I. Khajuraho II. Dilwara III. Sonagiri IV. Shravanabelogola

A

ALL

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43
Q

Buddhism: Buddha: family?

A
  1. son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the elected chief of the Sakya clan (Kapilavastu). Due to this, Buddha was also known as ‘Sakyamuni’. Mahamaya was a princess of Kosalan dynasty
  2. His mother died either giving birth to him or after seven days. Siddhartha was brought up by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him the name ‘Gautama’.
  3. Alara Kama his teacher of meditation; charioteer named Channa; Horse’s name Kanthaks; when left his home, he also sought teachings of Udraka Ramaputra who taught him meditative absorption leading to “the state of neither perception nor non-perception”
  4. He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.
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44
Q

Buddhism: Buddha: life history?

A
  1. born as Prince Siddhartha at Lumbini near Kapilavastu (in present Nepal) in 563 BC
  2. left his home at the age of 29 to become an ascetic. This event is called Mahabhishkramana
  3. idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four different states of man – sick man, old man, corpse and ascetic
  4. wandered for seven years and at the age of 35 attained enlightenment at Uruvela while meditating under a banyan tree on the banks of the river Niranjana. This tree came to be known as ‘Bodhi tree’ and the place became Bodh Gaya (in Bihar).
  5. gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called Dharmachakra Pravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana meaning ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.
  6. died in 483 BC under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (in UP). This event is called the Mahaparinirvana.
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45
Q

contemporaries of buddha?

A

Mahavira Jaina, Kings Prasenjit, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.

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46
Q

teachings of Buddha?

A
  • four noble truths (Arya Satya) in Buddhism
  • Ashtangirka Marga
  • tri Ratnas
  • also laid down a code of conduct fr his followers
  • avoid excessof luxury as well as hardship; prescribed the middle path
  • doesn’t recognize God or soul
  • Stressed on karma and ahimsa
  • against the varna system -> gained popularity among lower castes
    • hwevr supported the social order based on classes i.e nt based on birth bt on action
  • believed in law of Karma
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47
Q

Four noble truths of Buddhism?

A
  1. The world is full of sorrow.
  2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow.
  3. Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire.
  4. Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka Marga).
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48
Q

Ashtangika Marg?

A
  1. Right understanding
  2. Right resolve
  3. Right speech
  4. Right action
  5. Right living
  6. Right efforts
  7. Right thought
  8. Right self-concentration.
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49
Q

tri Ratnas of Buddhism?

A
  1. Buddha: the highest spiritual potential in everyone.
  2. Dhamma: the teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit Dharma or righteousness)
  3. Sangha: order of monks who follow Buddhism.
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50
Q

Buddha also laid down a code of conduct fr his followers, elaborate.

A
  1. do not covet property of others
  2. donot commit violence
  3. do not use intoxicants
  4. do not tell a lie
  5. do not indulge in corrupt practices
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51
Q

Bodhisattva?

A
  1. literally, one who essence is enlightenment
  2. term refers to gautam Buddha, before his enlightenment; also refers to other individuals destined to become Buddha
  3. Theoretically, anyone can become bodhisattva
  4. Bodhisattvas delay their own nirvana to help others
  5. MUST be a male
  6. may live life of a HHer and need nt be a monk
  7. sub-category of celestial Bodhisattvas
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52
Q

celestial Bodhisattvas?

A
  1. manifestation of eternal buddhas
  2. Foremost among them are Avalokitesvara
  3. In Tibet, Avalokitesvara, Manjusri and Vajrapani frm popular trinity of worshipped bodhisattvas
  4. In china,
    1. Manjusri: represents Wisdom
    2. Ksitigarbh: saviour of dead
    3. Samantabhadra: happiness
    4. Kuan-yin: Chinese name fr Avalokitesvara
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53
Q

Schism in Buddhism?

A
  1. Hinayana
  2. mahayana
  3. Vajrayana
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54
Q

Hinayana Buddhism?

A
  1. believed in original teachings of Buddha
  2. sought individual salvation thru self-meditation and discipline
  3. didn’t believe in idol worship
  4. a ‘religion without God’; Karma is the God here
  5. Nirvana is regarded as extinction of all
  6. oldest schoolof Hinayan: Sthavirvada (Theravada in Pali) or ‘Doctrine of elders’
  7. pali, language of masses used (as did Buddha)
  8. patronised by asoka
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55
Q

Mahayana BUddhism?

A
  1. often Asang is attributed as founder of Mahayana school
  2. believed in divinity of Buddha
  3. sought salvation thru grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas
  4. believed in idol worship
  5. Nirvana isn’t a negative cessation of misery bt a =ve state of bliss
  6. used Sanskrit, language of scholars
  7. patronised by Kanishka and later by Harsha
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56
Q

Vajrayana Buddhism?

A
  1. salvation cud be attained thru magical power, which they called vajra
  2. chief divinities: taras
  3. becam epopular in eastern india in 8th cent AD, particularly bengal and Bihar
  4. mission sent by great Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila to Tibet led to its popularity in Tibet in 11th cent AD
  5. influenced by many tantric sects
  6. during waning of Buddhism frm India, large no of Vajrayan Buddhism followers amalgamated into Hinduism, giving a tantric undercurrent to Hinduism, in eastren India particularly.
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57
Q

Buddhist scriptures?

A
  1. Tripittakas aka canonical texts (Canonical texts are those that are linked to Gautama Buddha in one way or another)
    1. Vinaya Pitaka
    2. Sutta Pitaka
    3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
  2. Khandakhas
  3. among non-canonical literature, Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa; latter two great chronicles of Ceylon
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58
Q

Vinaya Pittaka?

A
  1. deals with rules and regulations prescribed by Buddha
  2. describes in detail, evolution of Sangha
  3. acct of life and teaching ofBuddha
  4. acct of monastic codes and conducts
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59
Q

Sutta Pittaka?

A
  1. consists cheifly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions
  2. few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and others also incl
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60
Q

Abhidhamma Pitaka?

A
  1. contains philosophy of Buddha’s teachings
  2. investigates mind and matter
  3. contains religious discussions and debates Buddha had with his followers
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61
Q

Khandhakas?

A
  1. contain regulations on life in monastic order
  2. two sections
    1. mahavagga
    2. cullavagga
    3. third part also, Parivara, bt nt so significant
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62
Q

Buddhist Council: hw many?

A

4

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63
Q

1st Buddhist Council?

A
  1. at Satparni caves, Rajgriha
  2. 483 BC, just after Buddha’s demise
  3. presided by MahaKassapa
  4. patron: king ajatshatru of Haryanka dynasty
  5. Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings
  6. At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings)
  7. Mahakassapa composed and Upali recited the Vinaypitaka (monastic code)
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64
Q

Second Buddhist council?

A
  1. held at Vaishali.
  2. held in 383 BC, i.e., hundred years after the Buddha’s death
  3. Sabakami presided over
  4. patronage of King Kalasoka of Sisunaga dynasty.
  5. Main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka.
  6. first major split happened here – two groups that would later evolve into Theravada and Mahayana. The first group was called Theravadins or Sthaviravadins (meaning Elder in Pali). They wanted to preserve the teachings of Buddha in the original spirit. The other group called Mahasanghika (Great Community) interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more liberally.
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65
Q

3rd Buddhist council?

A
  1. at Pataliputra
  2. held in 250 BC
  3. presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa
  4. patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty; Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana
  5. Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in the Sangha
  6. Abhidhamma Pitaka was codified here making the almost completion of the modern Pali Tipitaka.
  7. estab of Sthavirvada school as an orthodox school
  8. Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.
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66
Q

4th Buddhist council?

A
  1. at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
  2. 1st century AD
  3. Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council
  4. under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty
  5. All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.
  6. Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
  7. This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
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67
Q

Dhammapada?

A

a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. It contains a collection of the sayings of the Buddha in verse form.

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68
Q

Milinda Panha?

A

Literal meaning in Pali – Questions of Milinda. It was written around 100 BC. It contains a dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander I or Milinda of Bactria and sage Nagasena where Milinda asks questions on Buddhism to the sage.

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69
Q

Buddhacharita?

A

it is an epic poem composed in Sanskrit by Ashvaghosha in early 2nd century AD. It is about the life of the Buddha.

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70
Q

Important Buddhist writers?

A
  1. Asvaghosha: contemp of Kanishka; was a poet, dramatist, musician and scholar; believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet prior to Kalidasa
  2. Nagarjuna: friend of Satavahan king Yajnasri gautamiputra of andhra. Propounded the madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy, popularly knwn as Shunyavada
  3. Aryadeva was a disciple of Nagarjuna and author of several important Mahayana Madhyamaka Buddhist texts. He is also known as Kanadeva, the 15th patriarch in Chan Buddhism, and as Bodhisattva Deva” in Sri Lanka.
  4. Asanga and Vasubandhu: brothers flourished in PJ region in 4th cent AD; Asanga was mst imp teacher of Yogachara or Vijnanavada school, Vasubandhu wrote Abhidharmakosa, an encyclopedia of Buddhism
  5. Buddhaghosha: 5th cent AD; great Pali scholar; Vissudhimaga imp post-tripitaka literature
  6. Dinnaga: 5th cent AD; well known founder of Buddhis logic
  7. Dharmakriti: 7th cent AD; Buddhist logician
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71
Q

Factors respnsible for Spread of Buddhism?

A
  1. use of Pali
  2. Buddha also organized sangha with doors open to everybody, incl women
  3. asked people nt to accumulate wealth and asked fr removal of poverty frm world
  4. also was aware of social realities
    1. rule that debtors weren’tallowed to be members of Sangha, helped moneylenders and richer sections of society
    2. rule that slaves cud nt sangha helped slave owners
  5. allowed HHers; propounded middle path
  6. Initial Sanghas were democratic and disciplined organisations.
  7. embrace by kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha and Harshavardhana.
  8. promoted education through residential universities like Valabhi, Nalanda and Vikramshila
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72
Q

contri of Buddhism?

A
  1. doctrine of Ahimsa
  2. laid foundation of image worship: Mahayana
  3. art and archi : stupas, stone pillars etc.
  4. enriched Pali language
  5. resident universities
    1. nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar
    2. Vallabhi in GJ
    3. Taxila in NW region
  6. missionaries to world around
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73
Q

decline of Buddhism in india?

A

practically became extinct by 12th cent AD

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74
Q

Who is supposed to be the future Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism?

A) Kakusandha

B) Amitabha

C) Maitreya

D) Kanak Muni

A
  • Maitreya is a transcendent Bodhisattva named as the universal Buddha of a future time in Mahayana Buddhism.
  • Kakusandha Buddha (Pali), known as Krakucchanda in Sanskrit, and Khoivadjig in Tibetan, is one of the ancient Buddhas
  • Amitabha also Amida or Amitayus, is a celestial Buddha according to the scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism.
  • Kanak Muni Buddha was believed as previous of Gautama Buddha.
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75
Q

Which of the following is not a text of Buddhism?

A) Jatakas

B) Acharanga Sutra

C) Digh Nikaya

D) Sumangalavilasini

A
  • Acharanga Sutra is not a text of Buddhism. It is first of the twelve Angas, part of the angas which were compiled based on the teachings of Mahavira
  • Jatakas are an important part of Buddhist art and literature. They describe the previous existences or births of the Buddha (the Enlightened One) when he appeared as Bodhisattvas (beings who are yet to attain enlightenment or moksha), in both human and non-human forms.
  • Digha Nikaya is a Buddhist scripture, the first of the five nikayas, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka
  • Sumangala-vilasini Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the Digha-nikaya
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76
Q

Where was the order of nuns established by Gautama Buddha?

A) Kapilvastu

B) Vaishali

C) Rajgriha

D) Sravasti

A

The order of Buddhist monks and nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. Buddha instituted a community of nuns in Vaishali at the request of his aunt Mahaprajapati.

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77
Q

The earliest epigraphic evidence mentioning the birth place of Sakyamuni Buddha is obtained from

A) Samath

B) Sravasti

C) Kausambi

D) Rummindei

A

Rummindei Pillar Inscription says that The Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, when he had been consecrated twenty years, came in person find referenced the place where Buddha Sakyamuni was born.

He caused a stone enclosure to be made and a stone pillar to be erected. As the Lord was born here in the village of Lumbini, he has exempted it from tax, and fixed its contribution [i.e. of grain] at one- eighth.

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78
Q

What is Kalyan Mitra in Buddhist philosophy?

A

Astangika Marg is Kalyan Mitra in Buddhist philosophy

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79
Q

To whom of his following disciples did Buddha preach his last sermon

A
  1. Buddha’s last ordained disciple was a very old Brahmin in the name of Subhadra who came to pay his last respects to him and asked for ordination. Immediately after ordination, Subhadra attained enlightenment and passed away.
  2. Ananda, first cousin of the Buddha and one of Mst Principal disciples, known as his “beloved disciple” and devoted companion.
  3. Sariputta or Sariputra was one of two chief, male disciples of Gautama Buddha along with Moggallana
  4. Bhikkhunis Khema and Uppalavanna, his two chief female disciples.
  5. Upali was a monk, one of the ten chief disciples of the Buddha. Before joining the order, he was part of the Royal barber caste and worked as a barber.
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80
Q

Main element (features) of Buddhist philosophy is

A) Pratitya Samutpad

B) Jivaand Ajiva

C) Syadvada

D) Triratna

A
  • Pratitya Samutpad is the main element of Buddhist philosophy. It refers to one of the central concepts in the Buddhist tradition that all things arise in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions.
  • Jiva and Ajiva: Jainism believes that the whole universe can be divided into two categories, viz. Jiva, i.e., soul and Ajiva, i.e. non-soul. These two” Jiva and Ajiva-exhaust between them all that exists in the universe
  • Syadvada: jain philosophhy
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81
Q

Yapaniya was a school of

A) Buddhism

B) Janism

C) Shaivism

D) Vaisnavism

A

Yapaniya was a school of Jainism. The saints of the Yapaniya School practised nudity like the Digambaras and believed in the liberation of women in conformity with the Svetambaras.

refer Flashcard #16

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82
Q

Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana in the republic of

A) Mallas

B) Lichhavis

C) Shakyas

D) Palas

A

Lord Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar, the mortal remains of Tathagat were kept in the ‘parliament house’, of the Republic of Mallas.

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83
Q

The concept of Anuvrata was advocated by

A) Mahayana Buddhism

B) Hinayana Buddhism

C) Jainism

D) The Lokayata School

A

In Jainism, Ahmsa is the standard by which all actions are judged. For a householder observing the small vows (anuvrata), the practice of ahinsa requires that one should not kill any animal life.

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84
Q

In the Mahayana Buddhism, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara was also known as

A) Vajrapani

B) Manjusri

C) Padmapani

D) Maitreya

A

Avalokitesvara is one of the most widely revered Bodhisattvas in mainstream Mahayana Buddhism, as well as unofficially in Theravada Buddhism. In Sanskrit, Avalokitesvara is also referred to as Padmapani (Holder of the Lotus) or Lokesvara (Lord of the World).

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85
Q

The Stupa site not connected with any incident of Buddha’s life is

A) Samath

B) Sanchi

C) Kushinagar

D) Bodhgaya

A

Sanchi, buddha never visited Sanchi

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86
Q

Lingayat Movement?

A
  1. The Lingayat Community was founded by Basava in the 12th century AD.
  2. TheLingayats are Virashaivites Saivite.
  3. The philosophy of the Lingayatas was influenced by the teachings of both Shankarachary and Ramanuja.
  4. This sect was characterised by an anti-Brahmanical spirit.
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87
Q

Lakulisha?

A

Lakulisha was a prominent Shaivite revivalist, reformist and preceptor of the doctrine of the Pashupatas, one of the oldest sects of Shaivism. According to some scholars, Lakulisha is the founder of the Pashupata sect.

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88
Q

Matsyendranath?

A

He is traditionally considered the founder of Hatha yoga as well as author of some of its earliest texts. He is also seen as the founder of the Hatha sampradaya, having received the teachings from Shiva. He is especially associated with Kaula Shaivism.

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89
Q

Who was the founder of Sunyavada?

A) Asang

B) Basubandhu

C) Vasumitra

D) Nagarjuna

A
  1. Sunyavada was founded by an Indian Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna (150 - 250 CE) and based on the Prajnaparamita Sutras, expounding the philosophy of emptiness, voidness (Sunyata), which later also influenced Ch’an in China and Zen in Japan.
  2. Vasubandhu was a very influential Buddhist monk and scholar from Gandhara. Vasubandhu was a philosopher who wrote on the Abhidharma from the perspectives of the Sarvastivada and Sautrantika schools.
  3. Vasumita; The monk who led the Fourth Buddha Council in Kashmir around the second century and helped compile The Great Commentary on the Abhidharma.
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90
Q

Who was the founder of Vigyanvada or Yogachar?

A) Ashvaghosh

B) Nagasen

C) Maitreyanath

D) Aiyadeva

A

Maitreyanatha (270-3 50 CE) is one of the three founders of the Vigyanvada or Yogachar school of Buddhist philosophy, along with Asanga and Vaspbandhu

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91
Q

Who was the founder of Aajivak Sampradaya?

A) Puran Kasyapa

B) Makkali Gosala

C) Aryadeva

D) Ajit Keskamblin

A
  • Ajivika, an ascetic sect that emerged in India about the same time as Buddhism and Jainism and that lasted until the 14th century. It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra (also called Gosala Makkhaliputta).
  • Purana Kassapa was an Indian ascetic teacher who lived around the 5th or 4th century BCE, contemporaneous with Mahavira and the Buddha.
  • Ajita Kesakambali was an ancient Indian philosopher in the 6th century BC. He is considered to be the first known proponent of Indian materialism. He was probably a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.
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92
Q

Buddha is depicted on the coins of

A) Wima Kadphises

B) Kanishka

C) Nahapana

D) Budhgupta

A

Kanishka’s coins portray images of Indian, Greek, Iranian and even Sumero-Elamite divinities, demonstrating the religious syncretism in his beliefs. The Buddhist coins of Kanishka are comparatively rare. Several coins show Kanishka on the obverse and the Buddha standing on the reverse, in Hellenistic style.

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93
Q

symbols associated in Buddhism with

  1. birth of Buddha?
  2. Parinirvana?
A
  1. Lotus and Bull
  2. stupa
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94
Q

Early Buddhist texts speak of six foremost opponents of Lord Buddha who were?

A

The 6 materialistic sects of 6th cent

  1. Ajit KesaKambalin Believed in materialism/ annihlationalism: no life after death
  2. Makkhali Gosal Founder of Ajivaka sect
  3. Purana Kassap Amoralism
  4. Pakudha Katyayan Believed in Eternalism
  5. Sanjay belathputta Believed in materialism synicism or agnosticism
  6. Niggantha Nathputta He was Bhagvan Mahavir

ALso was there Lokayat, bt nt mentioned by Buddhist sects. Founded by Charvaka; didn’t believe in any supernatural thing like soul or god; focus on pleasure in actual life.

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95
Q

Arrange in a chronological sequence the following Varsavasas of Gautam Buddha during the first decade of Ills enlightenment?

  1. Kausambi 2. Rajagriha 3. Risipattana 4. Vaishali
A

3-2-4-1

Varsavasas is annual three month retreat by Theravadas. Usually in wet months

Risipattna is another name of Sarnath

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96
Q

Consider the following statements:
Assertion (A): Gautam Buddha spent the maximum number of rainy seasons of Sravasti Reason (R): Prasenjit, the ruler of Kosala and Gautam Buddha were of the same age.

A

Both True, bt R doesn’t explain A

It is believed that Buddha spent 25 rainy seasons in Sravasti of which 19 he spent in the Jetavana Monastery and six in the Pubbarama monastery. It is also the place where he gave the maximum number of discourses and instructions.

Prasenjit, the Kosala king, was the contemporary of Gautama Buddha.

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97
Q

Who among the following scholars established Vajrayana sect of Buddhism in Tibet?

A) Shanta Rakshita

B) Padma Sambhava

C) Dharm Raksha

D) Kumarajiva

A

In 747, the Indian master Padma Sambhava travelled from Afghanistan to bring Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan at the request of the king of Tibet.

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98
Q

Which of the following is not a Buddhist writing?

A) Baveru Jataka

B) Dasarath Jataka

C) Sibi Jataka

D) Yavana Jataka

A

Yavanajataka is not a Buddhist writing. Sage Yavana, who belonged to the Alexander period, wrote Yavanajataka. He was an astrologer in the Greek court in India.

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99
Q

The story of the transformation of a dancing girl into a Buddhist nun is narrated in

A) Silappadikaram

B) Tolkappiyam

C) Paripadal

D) Manimeklialai

A

Manimekhalai is a second-century Tamil verse epic reflects the ancient culture of India in the story of a beautiful young dancer who abandons her future as a courtesan in order to dedicate her life to the pursuit of Buddliism. She became a Buddhist nun or Bhikshuni and practiced to rid herself from the bondage of birth and death and attain Nirvana.

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100
Q

In Buddhism, what does Patimokkha stand for?

A

The rules of the Sangha

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101
Q

What was the Kutagarashala literally, a hut with a pointed roof?

A

It is a place where intellectual debates among Buddhist mendicants took place

Kutagarasala Vihara is the monastery where Buddha most frequently stayed while visiting Vaishali. It is located 3 kilometres from the relic Stupa.

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102
Q

Which one of the following Buddhist’s texts speaks of the “Sixteen Mahajanapadas”? [UP-PCS 2008]

A) Angauttara nikaya

B) Majjhim Nikaya

C) Khuddaka Nikaya

D) Digha Nikaya

A

A

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103
Q

The entry of woman as a bhikshuni into the Buddhist sangha was allowed by Gautam Buddha at [UP-PCS 2010]

A) Sravasti

B) Vaishali

C) Rajagriha

D) Kushinagar

A

The entry of woman as a Bhikshuni into the Buddhist Sangha was allowed by the Buddha for the first time in vaishali. The first woman who got entry into the Sangha was the Prajapati Gautami the step mother of Buddha.

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104
Q

Which of the following sacred Buddhist place was situated on the river Niranjana? (UP-PCS 2012]

A) Bodh Gaya

B) Kusmagara

C) Lumbim

D) Rishipattana

A

Bodhgaya

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105
Q

Ajivikas?

A
  1. ascetic sect, contemporary with Buddhism and jainism
  2. founded by Gosala Makkhhali, early friend of Mahavir
  3. highlights:
    1. professed total determinism in transmigration of soul or rebirths i.e. cosmic force called niyati decided man’s fate to the last detail
    2. man cud nt do anything fr his rebirth
    3. went abt naked
    4. strictness in their rules wrt means of livelihood
    5. Asoka’s father Bimbisara was a follower and major patron
  4. Sometimes classified among 6 materialistic schools of 6th cent bt in essence nt completely so, coz they did believe in transmigration of souls while the materialistic schools rejected all immaterial categories completely.
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106
Q

Maurya rule: sources?

A
  1. Arthashastra:
    1. 15 Adhikarnas or parts; 6000 slokas
    2. money and politics
    3. commentary on it by Bhataswamy-> Pratipada Panchika
  2. Indica written in greek by Megasthenes, ambassador of Seleucus Nicator to CM’s court; wroteabt Patliputra as well as Mauryan society and state as a whole
  3. Ashoka’s edicts and inscriptions eg. inscriptions of junagarh
  4. MudraRakshasa by Vishakhadutta in 5th cent: ascension of CM
  5. Buddhist and Jain scriptures like Mahavamsa(Buddhist) - life and acct of Asoka
  6. Malvikagnimitram by Kalidasa : last yrs of maurya ruleandascension of Pushyamitra Sunga
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107
Q

ChandraGupta Maurya: origin?

A
  1. Buddhist source: a Kshatriya; a tribe of Sakyas, Moriyas (region full of peacocks)
  2. Jain: Moriya tribe of peacock farmers
  3. Brahmanical: describe him as a Shudra
  4. Greek: Sandrakottas of humble origin
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108
Q

ChandraGupta Maurya: different names?

A
  1. Palibrothos by Strabo
  2. Androcotus by Plutarch
  3. Piyadamas/ Vrishal/Chandrasiri/Kulihin by Mudrarakshasa
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109
Q

Bindusara: highlights?

A
  1. Ajivika patron
  2. receivd Greek ambassador Daimachos frm Antochus I
  3. received Ptolemy II’s envoy Dionysios
  4. various names:
    1. Amitraghat by sanskrit lit
    2. Amitchetas by Strabo
    3. Seemseri
    4. Bindupala
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110
Q

Asoka’s contemporaries?

A

Syria - Antiocus II

Egypt - ptolemy II

Macedonia - Antigonus Gonatas

Epirus - Alexander

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111
Q

Asoka’s names?

A
  1. Devanamkpriya - Monarchial epithet
  2. ashokavadnan - Purana
  3. Piyadassiraja - Barabar cave incription
  4. Ashoka Maurya - Junagarh incription
  5. Piyadassi - Kandhar inscription
112
Q

officer appointed by Asoka fr Dhamma?

A
  1. Dharma-mahamatras
  2. Dhammayuktas
  3. stri-adhyaksha
113
Q

Ashoka’s Rock edicts?

A
  • 14 major rock edicts spread across 8 places + 2separate edicts at Kalinga ;
    • deals with admin and ethics
    • practical instructions in running the kingdom such as the design of irrigation systems and descriptions of Ashoka’s beliefs in peaceful moral behavior.
    • They contain little personal detail about his life.
    • inscribed on large rocks, except for the Kandahar version in Greek (Kandahar Greek Edict of Ashoka), written on a stone plaque belonging to a building
    • not located in the heartland of Mauryan territory, traditionally centered on Bihar, but on the frontiers of the territory
  • minor rock edicts spread across 13 places
    • form the earliest part of the Edicts of Ashoka; predate Major edicts
    • first known edict: Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription, in Greek and in Aramaic
    • Minor Rock Edict No.1 is historically particularly important in that it confirmed the association of the title “Devanampriya” with the name “Asoka”
    • texts of the inscriptions are rather short, the technical quality of the engraving of the inscriptions is generally very poor, and generally very inferior to the pillar edicts dated to the years 26 and 27 of Ashoka’s reign
    • can be found throughout the territory of Ashoka, including in the frontier area near the Hindu Kush, and are especially numerous in the southern,
    • found on 15 rocks across the country and in Afghanistan also
    • Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP).
114
Q

Major Rock Edict I

A

Prohibits animal slaughter and bans festive gathering.

115
Q

Major Rock Edict II

A

Care for man and animals. Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India

116
Q

Major Rock Edict III

A

Generosity to Brahmins. About Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas who would go every five years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.

117
Q

Major Rock Edict IV

A

Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/righteousness) over Bherighosha (sound of war).

118
Q

Major Rock Edict V

A

About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about treating slaves right.

119
Q

Major Rock Edict VI

A

King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About welfare measures.

120
Q

Major Rock Edict VII

A

Tolerance for all religions.

121
Q

Major Rock Edict VIII

A

Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first Dhamma Yatra)

122
Q

Major Rock Edict IX

A

Condemns popular ceremonies.

123
Q

Major Rock Edict X

A

Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and stresses on Dhamma.

124
Q

Major Rock Edict XI

A

Elaborates on Dhamma

125
Q

Major Rock Edict XII

A

Tolerance for all religions and sects.

126
Q

Major Rock Edict XIII

A

Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.

127
Q

Major Rock Edict XIV

A
  • Engraving of inscriptions installed in various parts of the country.
  • inclusion of Assoka into Sangha
128
Q

Separate rock edicts of Asoka?

A

at Kalinga

Kalinga Edict – I: King declares that all men are his children. Talks about Mahamantras .

Kalinga Edict – II: Proclamation of edicts even to a single person.

129
Q

Minor rock edicts?

A
  1. Ashoka uses his name only in copies of Minor Rock edict I at four places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP).
  2. Queen Edict: Mentions about second queen of Asoka
  3. Barbara cave Inscription: Discusses giving away the Barbara cave to Ajivika sect Kandhar. Barabar Caves are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, mostly dating from the Maurya Empire
  4. Quandhar edict:
  • earliest than all other edicts pillar, rock or barabara cave
  • Bilingual Rock Inscription
  • Expresses gratification over Ashoka’s policy: talks abt hunters and fishermen giving up killing and choosing settled agri life
  1. Bhabru edict: faith of ruler and kingdom in Dhamma
  2. minor rock edicts helped in identifying ‘Suvarnabhumi’ as KN
  3. minor rock edict I: talks about Asoka’s inclusion in Sangha
  4. minor rock edict II: talks of promoting Dhamma
  5. Minor rock edict III: talks about Buddhist sanghas
130
Q

Asoka’s Pillar Edicts?

A
  1. There are seven pillar edicts.
  2. Two types of stones are used: spotted white sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati).
  3. All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone).
  4. They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
  5. Fragments of the same edict are found in different places.
  6. Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons.
  7. The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions and wheels and lotuses which are all significant symbols in Buddhism.
131
Q

major Pillar edicts and inscription details?

A

Pillar Edict I : Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people.

Pillar Edict II : Dhamma

Pillar Edict III : Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger among his subjects.

Pillar Edict IV : Responsibilities of the Rajukas.

Pillar Edict V : List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days. Another list which mentions animals that should never be killed.

Pillar Edict VI : Dhamma policy of the State.

Pillar Edict VII: Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects.

132
Q

minor pillar edicts?

A
  1. Rummindei pillar inscription: mentions exemption of Lumbini, birth place of Buddha, frm tax
  2. Nigalisagar pillar inscription: priginally near Kapilvastu; nw near Rummindei or Lumbini; says that Asoka increased the stupa of Buddha Konakamana to double its former size
  3. Schism edict: at Kausambi, SAnchi and Sarnath; appeals fr maintaining unity in Buddhist order.
133
Q

Language of inscription?

A

used 3 languages- Prakrit, greek and Aramic; and 4 scripts- Brahmi, Kharosthi, greek and Aramaic

  1. In eastern part of the empire, the Magadhi language in Brahmi script is used. (Magadhi is the dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha).
  2. In N-W parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in kharoshti script is used.
  3. Major Rock Edict XIII (Kandhar rock inscription) contains an extract in Greek and Aramaic as well.
134
Q

Books written by Vishakhadutta?

A
  1. Mudrarakshasa
  2. Devichandraguptam: tells how King Ramagupta is cheated into signing a humiliating treaty with a Saka ruler.
135
Q

Who was Ashoka’s contemporary king of Ceylon?

A) Abhaya

B) Pakanduka

C) Devanampiya Tissa

D) Mutasiva

A

Ashoka maintained close relations with Tissa, the ruler of Ceylon. Devaanampiya Tissa was the second son of Mutasiva. He was a friend of Asoka even before he became king.

136
Q

In which of the following inscriptions, Ashoka made his famous declaration “All men are my children”?

A) Minor Rock Edict of Ahrawra

B) Pillar Edict VII

C) Lumbini Pillar Edict

D) Separate Kalinga Rock Edict P

A

Separate Kalinga Rock Edict P

137
Q

Who were the beneficiaries of Ashoka’s donations in the region of Barabar Hill?

A) Buddhists

B) Ajivikas

C) Svetambar

D) Digambar

A

One of the edicts of Asoka’s Barbara cave inscription mentions the donation of Barbara hills region to Ajivika sect.

138
Q

Which of the following Ashoka inscriptions is in Kharosthi script?

A) Lumbini

B) Gimar

C) Khaisi

D) Shahbazgarhi

A

Kharosthi script has been used in the inscriptions found at Shahbazgarhi in Mardan District of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan and Manshera also in Pakistan

139
Q

Who was the son of Ashoka mentioned in an inscription?

A) Mahendra

B) Kunala

C) Tivara

D) Jalauka

A

The Buddhist texts mention about the family of Ashoka. His first wife was a princess ofUjjaini called Devi or Vedisa. His two other wives were Kamvaki and Asandhimitra. Asoka’s only son mentioned in inscriptions is Tivara, who was born to Kamvaki. The name of Kamvaki and Tivara are mentioned in Queen’s edict.

140
Q

Sarnath stambha?

A

Ashoka built the Sarnath pillar to commemorate the site of the first preaching of Lord Buddha, where he taught the Dharma to five monks. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is about 15.24 m in height and weighs 50 tons. The four-lion sculpture placed on top of this pillar is now treasured in the Archaeological Museum of Sarnath.

141
Q

T/F: Ashokan inscriptions are also found in nepal.

A

T

india, Pak, Afghanistan and nepal

142
Q

rajukas in Ashokan empire?

A

officers with authority to administr justice, reward as well as punish people

143
Q

Asoka’s Dhamma?

A
  1. paternak kingship
  2. disapproved rituals,esp those observed by women
  3. forbade killing of certain birds and completley banned killing of animals in capital
  4. prohibit social fns where people indulged in reveleries
  5. focussed on peservin the social order: proper behaviour to relatives, elders and monks
  6. if people behaved well, they can attain heaven , NOT NIRVANA, thus wasn’t a sectarian path bt just a wayof life
  7. such a pacifist policy unheard of prior to him except in Egypt where Akhnaton pursued a pacifist policy in 14th cent BC
144
Q

T/F:

Ashoka asserted in his inscriptions that royals were superior than normal folks

A

T

145
Q

Megasthenes’ observations of Mauryan rule?

A
  1. official measured land as in egypt and inspected channels thru which water was distributed into smaller channels
  2. He didn’t notice any slaves in India
  3. roads connecting NW India with Patna
146
Q

office in Mauryan rule:

  1. Samaharta
  2. Sannidhata
A
  1. highest officer in charge of assessment
  2. chief custodian of treasury and store house
147
Q

coins frm Maurya rule?

A

punch marked silver coins (called pana) carrying symbols of peacock, hill and crescent.

148
Q

cultural and architectural highlights of Mauryan rule?

A
  1. introduced stone masonry on large scale; Megasthenes mention of Patliputra palace (present Kumrahar)
  2. started carving out caves frm rocks fr monks to live in; earliest eg Barabar caves, near Gaya
  3. spread of material culture:
    1. tradin and missionary activities
    2. intensive use of iron as wellas art of making steel
    3. prevalence of writing
  4. NBPW pottery
  5. intro of burnt bricks and Ring wells fr common water supply ina community (no more mst to settle near a river)
  6. state formation inPenin india incl Satvahanas are also said to be inspired by Mauryas
  7. Nt a large pop, bt the largest bureaucracy in Ancient Indian history
149
Q

In Mauryan reign, NBPW pootery found at?

A
  • Bangarh in Dinajpur district, BN
  • ChandraKetugarh in 24 parganas, WB
  • Sisupalgarh, Odisha
150
Q

Lauriya Nandangarh pillar?

A
  1. Lauriya has 15 Stupa mounds in three rows
  2. Alexander Cunningham partially excavated one of them
  3. Pillar has lion capital
151
Q

bull capital found at?

A

Rampurva

152
Q

mauryas were succeded by?

A
  • Shungas and Kanvas in central india
  • Chetis in Kalinga
  • Satvahanas in deccan
153
Q

Great wall of CHina?

A

by Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti in 220BC to shield against Scythians (central Asians)

154
Q

Last Mauryan King?

A

Brihadratha

155
Q

satvahanas: political aspect?

A

succeded Mauryas after a gap of 100 yrs. earliest Satvahanas inscriptions belong to 1st cent BC, when they defeated Kanvas and established their rule in Central India

considered to be identical with Andhras, who are mentioned in Puranas (though the name Andhra does not appear in Satvahanas inscriptions)

INitial rulers appeared in north MH, in the upper Godavari valley. gradually extended over Andhra.

greatest competitors were Shakas who had established their control over upper Deccan and western India

Most famous

156
Q

Gupta dynasty: origin?

A
  1. rose to prominence in 320 AD
  2. spread to large parts of northern India, central and small parts of southern India.
  3. original homeland of the Guptas is not known for certain. But they might have originated from Bengal. Some scholars think they are from Prayaga (Allahabad in UP).
  4. thought to be either Brahmins or Vaishyas.
  5. Golden or classical age
157
Q

Gupta age: kings’ names?

A
  1. Sri Gupta
  2. Ghatotkacha
  3. Chandragupta I
  4. Samudragupta
  5. Chandragupta II
  6. Kumaragupta I
  7. Skandagupta
  8. Vishnugupta
158
Q

Gupta age: SriGupta?

A
  1. Founder of Gupta Dynasty
  2. 240-280 AD
  3. used the title of ‘Maharaja’
159
Q

Gupta Age: Ghatotkacha?

A
  1. son of Sri Gupta
  2. took title of ‘Maharaja‘
160
Q

Gupta age: ChandraGupta I?

A
  1. first great ruler of the line
  2. increased power and extent of empire by
    1. matrimonial alliance
    2. conquests
  3. married Kumaradevi, Lichhavi princess
    1. first Indian queen featured on a coin
  4. assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraj’
  5. Started the Gupta era in 320 AD, which marked the date of his accession
161
Q

Gupta age: Samudragupta?

A
  1. source: Prayaga Prasasti composed by Harisena, poet at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad pillar inscription
    • Also Eran inscription (MP) mentionshis conquests
  2. ascension to throne in 335 AD
  3. also a lover of art; also called “Kaviraja”
  4. ‘Indian napolean’ and ‘Hero of a hundred battles’ by V.A. Smith: policy of conquest; ‘Digvijaya’ his ultimate goal
  5. His region extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Krishna and Godavari Rivers in the south; and from Balkh (Afghanistan) in the west to Brahmaputra River in the east.
  6. conquests can be divided into 5 grps
    1. Ganga Yamuna doab: defeated and incorporated
    2. eastern Himalayan states and frontier states plus some republics of PJ which were finally destroyed
    3. forest kingdoms of Vindhyas called Atavika rajyas
    4. 12 rulers of eastern Deccan and south India- conquered and liberated; as far as Kanchi, TN where Pallavas were compelled to acknowledge his suzerainty
    5. Remaining Shakas and Kushanas still ruling in Afghanistan- defeated them and received their submission
  7. He was a follower of Vaishnavite Hinduism but was tolerant of other faiths. Acc to a chinese source, Meghvarman, ruler of Sri Lanka sent a missionary to SamudraGpta fr permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya which was agreed by Samudragupta.
  8. He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifice. Hence, one of his coins refers to him as “the restorer of Ashvamedha.”
162
Q

Eran inscription?

A

Eran is an archaeologically important place in MP. It is important for three reasons

  • one of the earliest coin minting centres in ancient India
  • many Vishnu avatar temples found here. Most famous being a huge varaha statue. Narsimha and hanuman temples are also there
  • inscriptions found on pillars and these temple walls

5 inscriptions found here

  1. Sridharavarman: Saka king
  2. Samudragupta: numeral scripts, with at least “2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7” ; his conquests
  3. Budhagupta: a Vaishnava inscription. It describes that the Gupta kingdom stretched from Kalindi River to Narmada River
  4. boar inscription of Toramana: names king Toramana, a King of the Alchon Huns, as ruling over Malwa and records that a Dhanyavishnu (someone unknown) is dedicating a stone temple to Narayana (Vishnu)
  5. Bhanugupta : mentions Bhanugupta; one the earliest recorded instances of Sati​, though doesn’t use the word
163
Q

Gupta age: Chandragupta II?

A
  1. source: glorified, bt exaggerated, in a pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar in Delhi
  2. highest watermark of Gupta empire
  3. extended power and extense by conquests and marriage alliance eg. marrying his daughter to a Vakataka prince of Central India and conquering malwa and GJ
  4. conquest of GJ and Malwa gave him access to coast and also Ujjain which he made his second capital
  5. Navratnas (9 Gems in his Court)
  6. Took the title ‘Vikramaditya’ which was first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57 BC to mark his victory over the Saka ksatrapas
  7. Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India
  8. assumed the title Sakari after he annexed three Satrapa kingdoms; He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III
  9. His other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya Sakari, etc.
164
Q

Chandraupta II’s 9 gems?

A
  1. Amarsimha: lexicography (dictionaries): Amarkosha
  2. Dhanvantri: Medicine: Ayurveda
  3. Harisena: Poetry: Allahabad inscription
    1. also wrote Brihatkatha Kosh: that describes the features of languages and clothing of people of SE Asia
  4. Kalidasa: Drama and poetry: in next flashcard
  5. Kahapanaka: astrology: Jyotishashastra
  6. Sanku: Architecture: Shilpashastra
  7. Varahmihira: Astrology: Brihadsamhita
  8. Vararuchi: Grammar: Vyakarna (in sanskrit)
  9. Vetalbhatta: Magic : Mantrashastra
165
Q

Works of Kalidasa?

A
  • 3 plays:
    1. Mālavikāgnimitram
    2. Abhijñānaśākuntalam: among the first Sanskrit works to be translated into English, and has since been translated into many languages
    3. Vikramōrvaśīyam
  • poems:
    • epics: two epic poems, Raghuvaṃśa (“Dynasty of Raghu”) and Kumārasambhava
    • two khandakavyas:
      • Descriptive:Ṛitusaṃhāra describes the six seasons by narrating the experiences of two lovers in each of the seasons
      • Elegiac: Kālidāsa created his own genre of poetry with Meghadūta (The Cloud Messenger), the story of a Yaksha trying to send a message to his lover through a cloud.
166
Q

Mrichhakatika: by? otherwork by him?

A

Sudraka: an Indian king and playwright.

Three Sanskrit plays are ascribed to him - Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart), Vinavasavadatta, and a bhana (short one-act monologue), Padmaprabhritaka

based in Ujjain, itis attributed to Gupta period.

167
Q

Kumaragupta I?

A
  1. Founded Nalanda University
  2. He was also called Shakraditya
168
Q

Skandagupta?

A
  1. Took the title of ‘Vikramaditya‘
  2. Was a ‘Vaishnavite‘
  3. Son of Kumaragupta
  4. Repulsed an attack by the Hunas but this strained his empire’s coffers
169
Q

Vishnugupta?

A

Last known ruler of the Gupta Dynasty (540 AD – 550 AD)

170
Q

Gupta age: system of admin?

A
  1. adopted pompous titles like parmeshwara maharajadhiraja etc
  2. kingship hereditary bt nt always the eldest son-> created uncertainties
  3. gifts to Brahmans; in return they patronsied the king as Vishnu; may hv portrayed them as Brhmans while origially probably were vaishyas
  4. stndg army; cavalry and horse archery replaced House chariots
  5. land taxes increased in no. while those on trade decreased
  6. 1/4th-1/6th taxes + forced labor called vishti
  7. judicial system far more developed with several law book; first tie civil and criminal laws clearly demarcated; laws abt inheritance; varna differentaited laws; king tried cases ; guilds also had their own laws
  8. distributing powers to brahmans and guilds meant not as elaborate bureaucracy as Maurya’s
  9. recruitment nt confined to upper varnas only; though often became hereditary
  10. mst imp officers : kumaramatyas
171
Q

Gupta age: provincialand local admin units?

A
  1. empire divided into divisions (bhuktis): under charge of an uparika
  2. bhuktis were divided into districts (vishayas), placed under vishayapati
  3. in eastern India, vishayas were divided into vithis, which were further divided into villages
  4. village headmen became more imp with assistance of elders
  5. in urban admin, organised professional bodies were imp eg. their consent fr land transactions was needed.
172
Q

feudatory chiefs under Gupta empire?

A
  1. major part of Gupta’s empire was under them
  2. three obligations to Samudragupta:
    1. personal attendance in his court
    2. paid tribute to him
    3. presented their daughters to him fr marriage
173
Q

seal of gupta empire?

A

Garuda

174
Q

grant of land to Brahmans under Guptas?

A
  1. fiscal and administrative powers
  2. started in deccan by Satvahanas; became regular practice under Guptas
  3. free of tax, fr ever and authorised to collect taxes
  4. cud nt be entered by royal agents
  5. also empowerd to punish criminals
  6. brought virgin lands under cultivation
175
Q

economy under Guptas?

A
  1. importance of guilds
  2. tax + vishti
  3. abundance of gold coins called dinaras; official paid in cash as well as land sales in cash bt not so much by commonpeople
  4. coins regular in size and weight; many types; portrays Gupta kings and their love fr war and art; nt as pure in gold as kushanas
  5. didn’t regulate economic activities on any large scale
  6. Fa-Hien informs that magadha was full of cities and rich people
  7. decline in long distance trade coz eastern roman learnt art of growing silk frm Chinese
  8. trade thru rivers became popular and cheap. ship building ind flourished; Tamralipti, a port in bengal, became an imp trade centre with trades with eastern countries
    • imp ports also developed in South, on banks of Godavari and Krishna like Tondai (Chola), Kalyana, Chol, Broach and Cambay.
176
Q

Social changes during Gupta’s age?

A
  1. castes proliferated
  2. brahmanas accumulated land and thus more privileges mentioned in Narada smriti
  3. no. of foreigners included as different castes
  4. position of shudras improved like permitted to listen to Ramayana and Mahabharata and worship a new go, Krishna as well as to perform certain domestic rites. Along with their econmic status as they nw became agriculturalists.
  5. No. of untouchables increased esp Chandalas.Their conditions explained by Fa-Hien
  6. status of women improved along with the economic status of the lower two varnas; women also seem to receive share in landed property
  7. In upper varnas, women more constrained; first instance of sati in 510 BC; though women cud re-marry; plus beginnins of purdah system
  8. significance of Stridhan concept increased by law books
177
Q

Guptas’s rule: religion?

A
  1. royal patronage to Buddhism stopped bt still it flourished acc to Fa-Hien; some stupas and viharas were constructed
  2. tolerance towards diff religious sects; no eg. of persecution of budhist and Jain scholars
  3. Nalanda became a centre of Buddhist edu
  4. Rise of Bhagvatism; Rise of idol worship
  5. majority of GUpta rulers followers of Bhagvatism , bt some also followers of Shavism though he wasn’t as important in early Gupta period.
178
Q

rise of bhagvatism?

A
  1. originated in post Mauryan times
  2. Vishnu was a minor god in Vedic times: representin sun nd fertility
  3. By 2nd cent, he was merged with Narayana, who was originally a non-vedic tribal god; narayana was originally called Bhagvat and his worshippers called Bhagvatas as he wassuppoed to bestow goodfortune (bhaga) to his bhakts
  4. Later Vishnu-Narayan was made identical with a legendary hero of Vrishni tribe living in western India called Krishna-Vasudeva
  5. By 200 BC, followers of all the 3 gods came together, creating Bhagvatism
  6. marked by bhakti and ahimsa
  7. liberl enough to attract foreigners as well as artisans and merchants, who became imp under Satvahanas and Kushanas. It was also open to women, vaishyas and shudras
  8. overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by the Gupta times; preached doctrine of avtars
  9. By 6th cent became a member of trinity of Gods
  10. Agri festivals were given religious colors
179
Q

Gupta age was called Golde nage of Ancient India because?

A
  1. Zenith in art and LIterature
  2. large no. of Golds as well as gold coins
  3. Nt much improvement in economic field as several towns in N. India declined
180
Q

T/F: In acncient India, Art was mostly inspired by Religion.

A

T

181
Q

Buddhist art in Gupta age?

A
  1. an over 2m high bronze image of Buddha recovered frm Sultanganj near Bhagalpur
  2. Fa-Hie saw an over 25m high image of Buddha made in Cu, bt its nt traceable nw
  3. beautiful images of Buddha were fashioned at sarnath and Mathura
  4. Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up in 5th cent with its earliest str frm upta period
  5. Ajanta paintings:
    1. 1st-7th cent AD though most of them frm Gupta times
    2. depict various events in Buddha’s life as well as previousbuddha
    3. life like, natural and brilliant colors
    4. NOTHINg to show that Guptas were the patron
  6. ​Fr the first time we get images of Shiva, Vishnu and other Hindu gods oftendepicted in an hierarchial manner- Panchayatan style
  7. Gupta age was poor in architecture bt beginnings of main styles of temple architecture: Nagara and Dravida
    1. Brick temple at Bhitargaon, Kanpur
    2. Bhitari in ghazipur
    3. Deogarh in Jhansi
182
Q

Gupta period literature?

A
  1. remarkable fr production secular lit- some of the earliest
  2. plays written in this period were all comedies and none were tragedies and characters of higher and lower classes do not speak the same language. women and shdras use Prakrit while higher classes use Sanskrit
  3. 13 plays written by Bhasa
  4. Mrichhkatika or Little caly Cart by Shudraka: one of the best works of ancient drama
  5. works of Kalidasa
  6. also an increase in production of reliious lit: ramayana and Mahabhrata were completed by 4th cent; earlier Puranas were compiled in this period; also saw compilation of various smritis or law books
  7. also saw dev of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali:
    1. amarkosha (lexicon aka dictionary) by Amarsimha
    2. dev of an ornate style of sanskri different frm the simpleone
    3. greater emphasis on verse than prose
    4. Sanskrit was thecourt language too
183
Q

Science and tech in Gupta period?

A
  1. Aryabhata
  2. Gupta inscription frm 448 AD, frm allahabad suggests knowledge of decimal system
  3. in astronomy, Romaka Sidhanta was compiled, influenced by Greek ideas
  4. distinguished metal work in Fe and Bronze
    1. several bronze images of Buddha
    2. Iron pillar fond at Mehrauli, Delhi: mfd in 4th cent, has nt gathered any rust, impossible feat fr any foundry in west until abt a century ago.
184
Q

Aryabhata?

A
  • Aryabhatta was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and physicist who lived in the fifth century.
  • He wrote Aryabhattiya, a description of his time’s mathematics. It is divided into four parts.
    • In the first part, he explains how to use numerals to represent large decimal numbers. Aryabhata created a system of phonemic number notation in which numbers were represented by consonant-vowel monosyllables.
    • In the second part, we’ll find challenging questions on number theory, geometry, trigonometry, and algebra, among other topics in modern mathematics.
    • The final two parts of Aryabhattiya, also known as Khagol-shastra, are about astronomy (Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied).
    • His pure mathematics discusses topics such as determination of square and cube roots, geometrical figures with their properties and mensuration, arithmetric progression problems on the shadow of the gnomon, quadratic equations, linear and indeterminate equations. Aryabhata calculated the value of pi (π) to the fourth decimal digit and was likely aware that pi (π) is an irrational number. Aryabhata’s sine table and his work on trignometry were extremely influential on the Islamic Golden Age; his works were translated into Arabic and influenced Al-Khwarizmi
    • He discovered that the apparent westward motion of stars is due to the spherical Earth’s rotation about its own axis. Aryabhata also noted that the luminosity of the Moon and other planets is due to reflected sunlight.
  • wrote Arya-siddhanta
185
Q

Varahmihira?

A
  • Varāhamihira’s most notable works were the Brihat Samhita, an encyclopedic work on architecture, temples, planetary motions, eclipses, timekeeping, astrology etc. It is mostly in code language. More than a dozen commentaries have been written for this work. The Kerala School of Astrology is mainly based on the Brihadjathaka.
  • The chapters of the Brihat Samhita and verses of Varahamihira were quoted by the Persian traveler and scholar Al Biruni.
  • Varāhamihira’s main work is the book Pañcasiddhāntikā . dated c. 575 CE, which gives us information about older Indian texts which are now lost. The work is a treatise on mathematical astronomy and it summarises five earlier astronomical treatises by five authors, namely
    • Surya Siddhanta: thought to be composed by Latadeva
    • romaka Siddhanta
    • Paulisa Siddhanta
    • Vasistha Siddhanta
    • Pitamah Siddhanta
186
Q

Imp Buddhist sites in INdia?

A
  1. Mahabodhi temple, Bodh Gaya
  2. Mahaviharas of N, V, S, O and J
  3. Sirpur in chhatisgarh
  4. Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha
  5. Nagapattinam in TN
  6. Rock cut elephant and Ashokan edicta at Dhauli, Odisha
  7. Monatries (covered in next flashcard)
187
Q

Mahaviharas?

A
  1. during the Gupta period, there emerged a new Buddhist institution, the Mahavihara (“Great Monastery”), which often functioned as a university
  2. enjoyed great success during the reign of the Pala kings
  3. presently at 5 places:
    1. nalanda
    2. Vikramshila
    3. Sompura
    4. Odantapuri
    5. Jagaddala
188
Q

Imp Buddhist monastries?

A
  1. Ladakh:
    1. Hemis Monastery: famous for the annual festival of Guru Padmasambhava
    2. Thiksey Monastery: noted for its resemblance to the Potala palace in Lhasa, Tibet
    3. Alchi Gompa Monastery
    4. Shankar Monastery: residence of the Abbot of Spituk , who is the senior incarnate lama of Ladakh
    5. Matho Monastery
    6. spituk monastery
    7. Shey monastery
  2. HP:
    1. Tabo Monastery
    2. Tsulglagkhang Monastery: home for His Holiness Dalai Lama and is situated in Maclodganj suburb of Dharamshala district
    3. Shashur Monastery
    4. Kye Gompa Monastery
    5. Nako Monastery
    6. Dhankar monastery
  3. Sikkim:
    1. Lingdum Monastery
    2. Rumtek Monastery: also called the Dharmachakra centre; It is a gompa
  4. Arunachal P:
    1. Tawang Monastery:largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet
  5. KN: Bylakuppe Monastery in Mysore; largest teaching centre of Nyingma lineage of Tibetan Buddhism
  6. WB: Ghum Monastery
189
Q

Imp Jain sites in india?

A
  1. Deogarh, UP
  2. Gwalior, Chanderi and Khajuraho in MP
  3. Udaigiri and Khandagiri caves in Odisha
  4. Akota (near Baroda) and Shatrunjay hills (Kathiawad) in GJ
  5. Chausa in Bihar
  6. Goomateswara statue at SravanaBelgola of Lord bahubali , son of first Jain tirthnkara, was built by Chamundarya
  7. Dilwara temple of Mt. Abu: by Vimal shah
  8. nasiyan temple at Ajmer
  9. hathee Singh temple at Ahmedabad
  10. Sittanavasal cave, TN
190
Q

Sangam age?

A
  • roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D.
  • It is stated in Tamil literature, that the 3 sangams lasted fr 9990 yrs
191
Q

sangam age : region?

A

South India (the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra)

192
Q

Sangam age: intro and features?

A
  1. named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
  2. eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies.
  3. earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
  4. According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
    1. The First Sangam, is believed to be held at ThenMadurai (south madurai), attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available. Founded by sage Agastya
    2. The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
    3. The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.
193
Q

Sangam Literature: Major source giving details of Sangam Age?

A
  1. Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
  2. Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
  3. The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
  4. Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works about ethics and morals. The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
  5. The two epics: Silappathikaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar. They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.
194
Q

Other Sources (i.e. nt Sangam literature) that give details about the Sangam Period

A
  1. The Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mentioning about commercial trade contacts between the West and South India.
  2. The Ashokan inscriptions mentioned about the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers to the south of Mauryan empire.
    • rock edicts II and XIII mentions Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas plus Keralaputra and Tambapanni
  3. Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also has mention of Tamil kingdoms.
195
Q

the three kingdoms of sangam age and Map?

A
  • collectively called Tamilakham
  • Cholas: central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu; core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as Cholamandalam
  • Cheras: central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
  • Pandyas: southern part of TN
196
Q

Cholas?

A
  1. Kaveri delta, Tanjore and Trichinopoly; betn Pennar and Vellar rivers
  2. first to acquire ascendency in S. India; conquered and ruled over by King Elara
  3. capital: Uraiyur (near Tiruchirapalli town) and and Puhar or Kaviripattinam
  4. Tiger was their emblem.
  5. efficient navy; wealth frm cotton trade
  6. King Karikala (190AD) was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas
    • extended rule over Ceylon
    • Pattinappalai portrays his life and military conquests.
    • Many Sangam poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated the confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.
    • military achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil region of that time.
    • founded the port city of Puhar (identical with Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.
  7. info abt Cholas frm Periplus of Erythrean sea and accts of Ptolemy
  8. power waned frm 4th cent AD
197
Q

Pandyas?

A
  1. capital at Madurai; incl southern TN regions incl Tirunelveli and S. Travancore
  2. Acc to Megasthenes, ruled by a woman once
  3. sent an embassy to Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan
  4. Greatest Pandyan king: Nedunchezhian who defeated Cholas and Cheras
  5. Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving. Also importnat was the port of Saliyur
  6. emblem was the “Fish
  7. patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the Sangam poems.
  8. kept a regular army.
  9. Trade was prosperous and their pearls were famous.
  10. Sati, caste, idol worship were common. Widows were treated badly.
  11. adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.
  12. power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.
  13. After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than a century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century.
198
Q

Cheras?

A
  1. controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of TN
  2. Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control.
  3. emblem of Cheras was “bow and arrow”.
  4. Pugalur inscription of the 1st century AD has reference to three generations of Chera rulers.
  5. Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. Romans built 2 regiments at Muziris and Crangnore to protect their interests.They also built a temple of Augustus there.
  6. greatest ruler of Cheras was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera or the Good Chera, who belonged to the 2nd century A.D.
    1. His military achievements have been chronicled in epic Silapathikaram, with details about his expedition to the Himalayas by crossing Ganga where he defeated many north Indian rulers.
    2. Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.
    3. He was the first to send an embassy to China from South India.
199
Q

Sangam literature compiled in?

A

300-600AD

200
Q

Sangam literature:details and classifications?

A
  1. two grps: narrative and didactic
    1. Narrative: called Melkannakku or 18 major works
      • 8 Ettutogai: by poets of 3rd sangam
      • 10 Pattuppatu
    2. Didactic: called Padinenkilkannaku or 18 minor works
  2. Besides sangam texts, Tolkappiam by Tolkappiar, dealing with grammer and poetics; its the only work that has survived frm 2nd sangam
  3. another imp Tamil text is Tirrukural
    • called Bible of Tamil land
    • deals with philosophy and wise maxims
  4. Twin tamil epics:
    • both composed ~6th cent AD
    • Silappathikaram: written by Elango Adigal
      • Brahmanical tone
      • brightest gem of early Tamil lit
      • love story in which a dignitary named Kovalan prefers a courtesan calledMadhavi of Kaveripattanam over his lawfully wedded wife Kannagi
      • author apparently a Jain
    • Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar
      • Buddhism tone
      • Sittalai Sattanar was a grain merchant of Madurai
      • adventures of daughter born of union of Kovalan and Madhavi
      • more of religious interest than literary
  5. another text considered epic: Sivaga Sindamani by Tiruttakadevar; Jain tone
201
Q

Sangam Polity and Administration: state level?

A
  1. hereditary monarchy; monarchs called Vendar and local chieftains were called Mannar;eldest son became the king
  2. king identified with God; theory of divine right of kingship
  3. Conspicuous absence of a privy council (advisory council)
  4. rather assisted by wise men or officials. two types:
    1. Aimperukulu: Purohita, senapatiyar, Amaichar (ministers), priests (anthanar), envoys (duthar), spies (orrar) etc.
    2. Enperayam: accountants, officials, palace guards etc.
  5. military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.
202
Q

Sangam Polity and Administration: local level?

A
  1. Parantaka’s (Chola) inscription ‘Uttar Meru’ source
  2. ‘Gram Sabha’ main body at village level and urcan cities level
  3. Three types of Gram sabha
    1. Ur: consisting of commoners; its executive body was called Aaluganm
    2. Sabha/mahasabha: headed by those who received Agrahara (a piece of land granted by King to generally Brahmins)
      • Variyam was the na,e goven to the executive body; it consisted of 30-75peopl; elected by lottery systems fr 3 yrs
    3. Nagaram: members were mainly traders
203
Q

Sangam economy?

A
  1. Self-sufficient
  2. The chief source of state’s income was land revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.
  3. Major source of fulfilling the royal treasury was the booty captured in wars.
  4. The roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.
  5. Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most common along with ragi and sugarcane
  6. ind like textile,handicrafts incl ornaments, weapons making, ship building, trade with foreign countries esp rome
  7. No system of coinage; barter system like honey, roots fr fish oil and toddy
    • coins of Roman king augustus discovered
204
Q

SAngam Military organisation?

A
  1. military administration was Rudimentary bt efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.
  2. cavalary + infantry + elephantry
  3. Head of battalions was called Nayakas
  4. Captain of the army were invested with title of enadi at formal ceremonies
  5. Army head was called Mahadandanayakas/Senapati
205
Q

Sangam age: Judicial system?

A
  1. JS was there as suggested by term ‘Nyayatar’
  2. Although Sangam lit doesn’t speak of any posts f judge, yet its believed that men of high caharac and standg and integrity acted as judges
  3. King was supreme magistrate
  4. Town court was called Avai; Village court was callled Manram, distributed across nadu (districts) and urs (towns)
206
Q

Sangam society: division of land?

A

Tolkappiyam refers to the Five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).

207
Q

Sangam society: castes?

A
  1. Acute caste distinctions didn’t appear until much later
  2. Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar(Ruling Class), anthanar, vanigar(carried on trade and commerce) and vellalar/vallangais(Agriculturists).
  3. kadaisiyars: agri ops were generally carried on by labourers; lowest caste; similar to slaves
  4. comparing to Vedic castes, only two classes are evident: Brahmins and Shudra (non-Brahmins);
  5. Untouchables were called ‘Parriyas’: they were agri lab who worked in animal skin
  6. rathraja: people engaged in chariot making
  7. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
208
Q

Position of Women during Sangam Age

A
  1. lot of info present in Sangam lit
  2. Women had respect and were allowed intellectual pursuits.There were women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
  3. Prevalence of devdasi system
  4. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. But life of widows was miserable.
  5. There is also a mention about the practice of Sati being prevalent in the higher strata of society.
209
Q

Sangam age: religion?

A
  1. primary deity of the Sangam period was Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
    • The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin; festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature.
  2. Murugan was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.
  3. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Tirumal, Balram, Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indra), Varunan and Korravai.
  4. The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal or virarkal worship was significant in the Sangam period and was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors in the battle.
  5. temples called as nagar, koli, kottam, purai and devalayam
  6. worship of Kannagi was common
  7. Vedic practices of yajna, sraadha and pinda common
  8. varnasystem also took hold
  9. influence of B, J and ajivikas significant
  10. Megalithic practice of providing fr the dead continued
210
Q
  1. Which Sangam ruler started sugarcane cultivation?

A. Nedunjelian

B. Shenguttavan

C. Udiyanjeral

D. Adigaiman

A

Adigaiman

211
Q

Match the following with class of people and their Gods

a. Kuruvar 1. Korravoi
b. Maravar 2. Varunan
c. Kurumbar 3. Majon
d. Ulavar 4. Indra
e. Parodwar 5. Murugan

A

Kuruvar (Hunters): Murugan/ Skanda/ Kumara/ Katrikeya/ Subrahmanya

Maravar (Warrior): Korravoi (Durga. Kali)

Kurumbar (Shepherds): Krishna, Tirumala, Majon

Ulavar (Peasant): Indra

Parodwar (Fishermen): varuna

212
Q

Which Sangam ruler is credited with bringing into existence the river Pahruli and starting sea-worship

A

Nediyan, Pandya ruler

213
Q

Which of the following book is considered as the ‘Odyssus of Tamil poetry’? [A] Tirukkural [B] Manimekalai [C] Silappadikarma [D] Jivaka Chintamani

A

Manimekalai

214
Q

Who was the chairman of

  1. First Tamil Sangam
  2. Second Tamil Sangam
  3. Third Tamil Sangam?
A
  1. Agstya
  2. Agastya
  3. Nakkirar
215
Q

What was Arikamedu during ancient India? [A] A coastal settlement and trade centre [B] A mountain [C] A city in Aravalli Mountains in Gujarat [D] A La

A

A

216
Q

Which site near Pondicherry gives best support to the view on an ancient trade between Rome and the ancient Tamil country of India

A

Arikamedu

217
Q

Consider the following statements:

  1. Andal was a woman Alvar whose compositions were widely sung.
  2. Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a devotee of Shiva who adopted the path of extreme asceticim in order to attain her goal
A

Both true

218
Q
  1. Who was the author of the Jivaka Chintamani?
  2. In Sangam age, the book ‘Bharatam’ was written by__?
A
  1. Tiruttakrdeva
  2. Bharatman
219
Q

The 5 major epics of sangam age?

A

Silappadikaram

Manimekhalai

Jivak Chintamani

Valayapati

Kundalakasi

220
Q

SAngam age: external trade ?

A
  1. Mst imp partner Rome
  2. cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur: very high demand
  3. imp port city: Puhar (most important place of foreign trade as big ships entered this port), Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam
  4. Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and spices along with ivory products, pearls and precious stones
  5. Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine
  6. trades with Greek or Hellenistic kingdoms of Egypt and Arabia on west and with Malay archi and china on east
  7. as a result, words fr rice, ginger, cinnamon etc similar in Tamil and Greek
  8. discovery of monsoon (beginnig of 1st century AD) gave an impetus to the trade
221
Q

T/F:

  1. Tamiml Brahmans took meat and wine.
  2. Kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varnas in sangam texts.
  3. Civil and military offices were held by rich peasants.
  4. Arasars cud nt marry vellalas.
A
  1. T
  2. T
  3. T; under both Cholas and Pandyas
  4. F
222
Q

Time period of central Asian and Greek contacts

A

2nd Cent BC to 3rdCent AD

223
Q

Sequence of invasions during the Greek and Central Asian contact? Cause for their invasions?

A

Indo-Greeks

Sakas

Parthians

Kushanas

cause: they were pushed east by the scythian tribes, who themselves were pushed because of the construction of the chinese wall. The seleucid rulers ruling Bactria and Parthian region were weak and could not defy the scythian tribes

224
Q

INdo-Greeks:

  1. who?
  2. why?
A
  1. Bactrian Greeks i.e. Greeks, Who ruled bactria, lying south of the oxus river in the area covered by the north Afghanistan
  2. pushed by Scythian tribes
225
Q

Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks?

A
  1. They pushed forward upto Ayodhya and Patliputra, but failed to establish United rule in India
  2. Two Greek dynasty ruled North Western India on parallel lines at one and the same time
  3. Most famous Indo Greek ruler: Menandar (165-145 BC), aka milinda. He was converted to Buddhism by nagsen, also known as Nagarjun. Their conversation regarding Buddhism is recorded in the form of a book known as mMilinda Panho.
  4. They were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, unlike the earlier punch marked coins which cannot be assigned with certainty to any dynasty
  5. They were the first to issue gold coins in India
  6. Introduced hellenistic art in the North West frontier of India.
226
Q

Shakas?

A
  1. Controlled much larger part of India than the Greeks
  2. Five branches of shakhas:
    1. Afghanistan
    2. punjab with Taxila at its capital
    3. Mathura
    4. Western India where they continue to rule the longest until 4th century AD
    5. Upper Deccan
  3. In 57 - 58 BC king of Ujjain succeed and driving them out. He called himself Vikramaditya, and an Era called the Vikram samvat started from 57 BC. Vikramaditya title became a coveted title, the most famous wink Chandragupta II
  4. Most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (130-150 BC) who ruled parts of Gujarat, konkan, narmada Valley, malwa and kathiawar
    1. He is famous for repair of Sudarshan lake in Kathiawar. It was used for irrigation
    2. He was a great lover of Sanskrit and issued the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. In which was the first ever incidence of Kavya style
227
Q

Parthians?

A
  1. Ruled over parts of India on parallel lines with shakhas for sometime
  2. Originally from Iran
  3. Occupy the small portion of North Western India in the first century AD
  4. Most famous for thinking was Gondophernes.
    • St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity in his time
228
Q

Kushanas?

A
  1. also called Yuechis or Tocharians
  2. They were Nomadic people from Steppes of North Central Asia living in the neighbourhood of China
  3. As they replaced Shakha and parthians, their Empire extended from the oxus to the Ganga, from khurasan in Central Asia to Varanasi . Thus, they ruled over a large area comprising of present-day nine countries which allowed for cultural intermingling
  4. There are two successive dynasty of Kushanas
    1. kadphises (50-78AD): Kadphises I issued copper coins in imitation of Roman coins south of Hindu Kush. Kadphises II issued a large number of gold coins east of Indus
    2. Kanishka: Extended Kushan power over lower Indus basin
      • Issued large no. of gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity than found in Gupta Gold coins
      • Their inscriptions are distributed as far as Kaushambi and Varanasi. Thus, their authority reached middle gangetic basin. Mathura was their second capital in India, in first being PurushaPur or Peshawar.
      • Kanishka is famous for two things: Patronage of mahayana Buddhism and starting the Shaka era in 78 AD
      • kanishka held a Buddhist council in Kashmir where doctrines of Mahayana buddhism were finalised
      • He was also a great Patron of Art and Sanskrit literature
      • kanishka rulers ruled up to 230AD
      • Some of them bore typical Indian names such as Vasudev showing their assimilation into Indian society
229
Q

impact of central asian contacts: main points?

A
  1. art
  2. architecture
  3. better cavalry
  4. trade
  5. agriculture
  6. polity
  7. religion
  8. society
  9. S&T
  10. literature
230
Q

impact of central asian contacts: art?

A
  1. typical pottery is red ware, both plain and polished
    • distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels
  2. medium to thin fabric
    • red ware and thin fabric are similar to those found in central asian occupation of Kushanas
  3. gandhara art
  4. Mathura art: primarily indigenous; famous for headless erect statue of Kanishka and stone images of vardhaman Mahavira, It spre-Gupta sculptures ignore Krishna
    • famous for its red sandstone sculptures
  5. In AndhraP, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati became great centres of Buddhist art and Buddhist stories were depicted in panels.
    • similar panels are also found in Gaya, Sanchi and bharhut
  6. Greeks introduced use of curtains in theatre (calling curtains yavana)
231
Q

impact of central asian contacts: architecture?

A
  1. distinct advace i building activities with several layers excavated
  2. use of burnt bricks and tiles for flooring and roofing
  3. period is marked by construction of brick walls
  4. Buddhist caves were constructed out of rocks in MH
232
Q

impact of central asian contacts: better cavalry?

A
  1. use of riding horse on a large scale
  2. made common use of reins and ssaddles
  3. introduced turban, tunic, trousers and heavy long coat (similar to present day sherwani)
  4. brought in cap, helmet and boots used by warriors
233
Q

impact of central asian contacts: trade and foreign relations?

A
  1. trade with roman empire: brough in gold coins
  2. Kushans controlled the silk route
  3. Dogs, cattles, spices and ivory were exported by Greeks
  4. embassies were exchanged with roman kings eg. sent to court of Augustus in 27-28 CE
234
Q

impact of central asian contacts: agriculture?

A
  1. earliest archaeological traces of large scale irrigation in Pak, afghanistan and western Central asia belong to Kushan period
235
Q

impact of central asian contacts: polity?

A
  1. feudatory organization
    1. adopted the title of ‘king of kings’
  2. divine origin of kingship, called ‘sons of gods’ to,legitimize royal authority- (ref. Manu)
  3. introduced satrap system: satrapies under satraps
  4. curious practices like hereditary dual rule => less centralization
  5. introduced practice of military governership to maintain control over conquered people. Appointed guvs called strategos
236
Q

impact of central asian contacts: religion?

A
  1. early Indo-Greek rulers were converted to Vaishnavism eg, Greek ambassador erected pillar in Vidisha in honour of Vasudeva
  2. Later rulers converted to Buddhism eg. Menander
  3. Kushan rulers worshipped Vishhnu, Shiva as well as Buddha
    1. Kanishka- patronage to Mahayana Buddhism
    2. a later Kushan ruler named Vasudeva
  4. emergence of Mahayana Buddhism
237
Q

impact of central asian contacts: society?

A
  1. They did not have their ownscript or organized religion; foreigners were completely indianized in due time
  2. usually as kshatriya class; Manu says that Shakas and Parthians were kshatriyas who deviated form their paths, thus classified as second class kshatriyas
  3. IN NO OTHER PERIOD OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WERE FOREIGNERS ASSIMILATED INTO INDIAN SOCIETY ON SUCH A LARGE SCALE AS THEY WERE IN THE POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
238
Q

impact of central asian contacts: S&T?

A
  1. Indian astronomy and astrology profited , many Greek terms found in Sanskrit texts
  2. Greek horoscope derive dfrom horashastra
  3. Greek coins were improvement on punch marked coins; Kushan Au coins imitation of roman Au coins
  4. Indians self-sufficient in Medicine, botany and chemistry
    1. charaksamhita, oshadhi
  5. working in glass was especially influenced by them and this period marks the high water point of glass works
  6. leather shoes, turbans, long coats, military hats and warrior clothes
239
Q

impact of central asian contacts: literature?

A
  1. Milind Panho by Nagasen aka Nagarjuna, conversation with Menander describing questions regardig Buddhism
  2. Kanishka saw over second Buddhist council in Kashmir thatsaw compilation of explanations of the three pitakas
  3. they patronized sanskrit literature
    • earliest incription in chaste sanskrit by Rudradaman I at Junagadh. it wa salso the first in kavya style
  4. Kushanas patronised
    1. Ashvaghosh: wrote Buddhacharita, biography of Buddha
      • also composed Saundarananda, a sanskrit kavya
    2. numerous avadanas (Mahayana Buddhist texts) in buddhist hybrid sanskrit eg. Mahavastu and divyavadana
  5. best example of secular lit - Kamasutra of Vatsyayana (3rd cent CE)
240
Q

impact of central asian contacts: religion: emergence of Mahayana Buddhism: causes?

A
  1. large influx of people from central asia, many foreigners were non-vegetarians
  2. big increase in trade and artisonal activities, some buddhist monks were eager to accept donations from them
  3. patronage by Kanishka
241
Q

Indian-roman relations and influences in Post Mauryan period?

A
  1. imitation of coins: gold coins by Kanishka
  2. embassies exchange : embassies sent to Augustus in 27-28CE and Trajan in 110-20CE
  3. Gandhara art
  4. silk route
242
Q

examples of cultural assimilation during post mauryan period?

A
243
Q

Charaka samhita?

A

is a Sanskrit text on Ayurveda

It is one of the three works that constitute the Brhat Trayi. (other two being Sushruta Samhita and Ashtang Hridayam Samhita)

Charaka lived in the mid 2nd century and was associated with the north-western part of India and the ancient university of Taksasila

The text is based on the Agnivesha Samhitā, an eighth century BCE encyclopedic medical compendium by Agniveśa. It was revised by Charaka between 100 BCE and 200 CE and renamed Charaka Samhitā

The Charaka Samhita is often philosophical and ethical in its considerations and includes an Oath of Initiation that is akin to the Hippocratic Oath

244
Q

Brhat Trayi?

A

The Bṛhat-Trayī, literally translated as “The Great Triad (Of Compositions)”, refers to three early Sanskrit encyclopedias of medicine, which are the core texts of Ayurveda

The following three works constitute the Bṛhat-Trayī:

245
Q

Sushruta Samhita

A

ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery

was written by the famous physician and surgeon Susruta in the 6th century BCE (6th to 10th cent, exact period not known) who taught at the University of Benares

Susruta was the first to practise rhinoplasty in India

Interestingly, in neither the writings of Susruta or of Charaka is there any indication that animal dissection was practised. Their anatomical knowledge, therefore, appears to have been gleaned from human dissection.

246
Q

Panchatantra?

A

an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose

The surviving work is dated to about 200 BCE, but the fables are likely much more ancient

The text’s author is unknown, but it has been attributed to Vishnu Sharma in some recensions and Vasubhaga in others, both of which may be fictitious pen names

translated into various languages eg. Kalilah wa Dimnah in Arabic by Abdullah Ibn al Muqaffa

247
Q

Mauryan Art: intro?

A

Although the tradition of art and culture in Indian subcontinent was started during the Indus Valley Civilisation, but lost the continuity in later period of time. Art and craft tradition got continuity only during the Mauryan Period.

  1. Court art
  2. Folk art
248
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: palaces?

A

Chandragupta Maurya Palace
features
Wood was used as the main material. Especially in ceilings
This palace had 80 pillars, these pillars were made up of single piece of rock.
The floor and ceiling of the palace was made up of wood.
The length and breadth of the whole palace was 140 ft. and 120 ft. respectively.
The pillars have gold vines and silver Birds
Attractive wooden stage in the Assembly.

Greek traveler Megasthenes portray the castle of the Maurya Empire as probably the best creation of humanity and Chinese Traveller Fe Hien called Mauryan royal residences as God-gifted monuments. Yunaian traveller, Arian compared the grandeur of the Palace of Chandragupta Maurya with the palaces of Susha and Ekbatna (world’s most famous cities of the that time)

other examples: The Mauryan capital at Patliputra, Ashoka’s Palace at Kumrahar

249
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: Pillars?

A
  • The best specimens of the modern period are the Monolithic pillars of Ashoka which are found in different parts of the country for the propagation of Dhamma.
  • monolithic stones
  • usually made up of chunar sandstone
  • Height of columns from 30 to 50 feet.
  • While most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit language, few were written in Greek or Aramaic language also.
  • usually composed of four parts. Namely Shaft, capital, Abacus, and capital figure.
    • Shaft: A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a single piece of stone or monolith.
    • Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
    • Abacus: Above the capital, there was a circular or rectangular base known as the abacus.
    • Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc) are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus.
  • Example- Sarnath Lion Capital, Vaishali pillar, lauriya nandangarh, lauriya areraj.
250
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: stupas?

A
  • The stupa is a Sanskrit word that means a heap.
  • It originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, which was later called Anda. Gradually with time and the addition of artwork it evolved and got transformed into a more complex structure. The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated with Buddhism.
  • Diagram
    https: //1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUlaP96lfP1rnBbS?e=Slg2gn
  • According the scriptures of Buddhism Ashoka had made 84000 stupas across the country. But this claim is controversial as evidences of such a huge number of stupas are not found but it is possible that they were demolished in later periods.
  • Stupas were built at places that were regarded as sacred. Sacred because these places were related to Buddha’s life. Relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or objects used by him were buried under these mounds and these mounds are known as a stupa.
    • In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the different events of Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
    • Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas.
  • structure
    • The simple semi-circular mound of earth is called Anda, above this anda is the harmika, a structure resembling a balcony it represents the abode of the gods.
    • Rising above from the harmika is a mast called the Yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound is a railing known as Vedika.
    • The Circumbulatory path between the railing and the Anda is known as Pradakshina.
    • The Entrance gate is called Torana.
  • material used : The core of the stupa was made of unburnt brick while the outer surface was made by using burnt bricks, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster and medhi and the toran were decorated with wooden sculptures.
  • Examples
    • Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
    • Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
    • stupas were built over eight set of relics. They are at Allakappa by Bulis (location unknown), atKapilvastu (modern day Piprahwa in UP) by Shakyas , at Kushinagar by Mallas, at Pava (near modern day Kushinagar), at Rajgriha (Magadhan capital) by Ajatshatru, at vaishali (capital of Vajjinas), at Ramagrama, a city of koliya kingdom (in modern day Nepal), and at Vethapida by Vethapida Brahmanas,
    • Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory path.
251
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: caves?

A
  • Viharas were basically the residences of Buddhist Monks. These were made by cutting mountains in either rectangular or circular form.
  • During the Maurya time caves were utilized as “viharas” the living quarters by the Jain and Buddhist priests. The caves during the Mauryan period are marked by a highly polished finish of the inside walls and carved gateways.
  • Important examples of Viharas in Bihar are Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves in Gaya. These were made by mainly Ashoka and his grandson Dashratha.
    • Some other examples of Viharas(Buddhist Caves) are Sudama, Karna, Chaupar, Gopi, Vaddhika, Vishwa Jhopdi etc.
252
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: Folk Art: sculpture?

A

also seen as part of royal pillars
examples
Lauria Nandangarh
East Champaran, Bihar
Lion
Lauria Areraj
East Champaran, Bihar
Ox
Rampurva I & II
west Champaran, Bihar
Ox
Sarnath
Lion
Sankisha, UP
elephant

In folk art, The Statue of yaksha and Yakshi are the most important sculptures from this period. these were the object of worship related to all the religions i.e. Jainism Buddhism and Hinduism.

These sculptures were made up of stone.

On these sculptures shiny polish was used to be done, which adds to their beauty and sculptures became more realistic

examples: A statue of two Jain saints from lohanipur, The sculpture of a woman and a boy from Bulandi Bagh and Yakshini statue found at Didar Ganj, Jain tirthankar statue from Lohanipur, Patna.

253
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: pottery?

A

These potteries were being made by people for their daily needs as well as for decorative purposes one of the most characteristic features.

Pottery of the Mauryan period is usually referred to as Northern black polished ware (NBPW). The pottery was characterized by Black paint and a highly lustrous finish was Generally used as a luxury item.

Kaushambi and Patliputra were the centers of NBPW pottery.

254
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: comparison with Persian pillars?

A

comparison with Persian (Achaemenian) pillars

similarities

  • Polished Stones and Motifs: Both Maurya and Achaemenian pillars, used polished stones and have certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
  • Proclamations: Maurya’s idea of inscribing proclamations (related to Buddhist teachings and court orders) on pillars has its origin in Persian pillars.
  • Third Person: Inscriptions of both empires begin in the third person and then move to the first person.

Differences

  • The Capital Figure: It was absent in Mauryan pillars of the Kumhrar hall whereas pillars at Persepolis have the elaborate capital figures.
  • The Shape and Ornamentation: The shape of Mauryan lotus is different from the Persian pillar.
  • Pillar Surface: Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted/ ridged surface while the Mauryan pillars have a smooth surface.
  • Architectural Scheme: The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, and bit complex and complicated, while the Ashokan pillars were simple and independent freestanding monuments.
  • Shaft: Unlike Mauryan shafts which are built of monolith (single piece of stone), Persian/Achaemenian shafts were built of separate segments of stones (aggregated one above the other).
255
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: significance?

A

The Mauryan Art is a valuable treasure of India it gives us pride and self-confidence

The workmanship and design of this period were moderate, liberal, and common in nature. The worth of stupa at Sanchi and bull capital at Sarnath portray the significance and stand as a declaration to this brilliant time of Indian history.

Apart from the national emblem of India and state Emblem of Bihar, Mauryan art is also present at Rashtrapati Bhavan, The new Parliament building is going to be made on the Sanchi Stupa model.

The name Bihar is derived from the word viharas i.e. residence of Buddhist monks.

Mauryan arts give evidence of centralized administration of kingdoms and their continuity in Bihar.

256
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: criticism?

A

Many historians such as John Marshall and Persi Brown considered that the Mauryan Art was influenced with (inspired from) Iranian Art Forms.
Some of them said that the Mauryan Palace was a carbon copy of the palaces of Armenian Empire of Iran.

Pillars of Mauryan Period was also considered as the inspiration of Iranian pillars with slight variations in their architecture.

Mauryan Art (especially court Art){ was highly religious in nature, which restricted the appearance of cultural ethos and other aspects of the society of that period.

257
Q

Pala Art: intro?

A

developed during the medieval period between 8th-12th century under the aegis of Pal rulers.

Pal rulers were Buddhist followers, which can be seen in the art forms of Palas very easily.

Pal Art included various forms of art and crafts which include a splendid Architectural art forms (Mahavihar, Chaityas, Temples and Stupas), sculptures (bronze and stone made) and Paintings (manuscript and wall Paintings).

  1. Architectural art forms
  2. paintings
  3. sculptures
258
Q

Pala Art: Architectural art forms?

A
  1. Mahaviharas
  2. Chaityas
  3. Temples
  4. Stupas
259
Q

Pala Art: Architectural art forms: mahaviharas?

A
  • Mahaviharas were made during Pal rule mainly for residential purposes for Buddhist monks. But Mahavihars also served as important Buddhist educational centers.
  • Mahaviharas were generally in rectangular in structure, which included an open courtyard in the middle.
  • All around the courtyard, porch/veranda was used to be made, in which gates of rooms were opened.
  • Some Mahaviharas in which gates of rooms were opened.
  • Some Mahaviharas had double storeyed rooms and stairs for the 2nd storey rooms were made in the courtyard.
  • Diagram
    https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUY7WfyCmwtWw2mI?e=8E4Z7Y
  • some important Mahaviharas
    Vikramshila Mahavihar: Bhagalpur by Dharmapal
    Odantpuri Mahavihar: Biharsharif by Gopala
    Sompur Mahavihar: Naogaon (BN) by Dharmapal
260
Q

Pala Art: Architectural art forms: chaityas?

A

These were basically a kind of Buddhist temples.

The tradition of building Chaityas were old but these got diversification during Pal rule.

Many remains of Chaityas can be found from different parts of Bihar.

261
Q

Pala Art: Architectural art forms: temples?

A

Although Pal rulers were Buddhist but they also made many temples of Hinduism.

These temples were basically made in the famous Nagar style.

examples
Gufa mandir at Kahalgaon, Bhagalpur
Vishnupad Mandir at Bodh Gaya; an imp feature of this temple is Ardh Mandap

262
Q

Pala Art: Architectural art forms: Stupas?

A

Although culture of stupas were ancient but some stupas were also made during Pal period with slight differentiation.

Stupas had multiple parts, which include Yashti, Chhatra, Harmika, Gumbad, Pradakshina Path, Vedika, and Toran Dwar.

Diagram
https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUcldx3J10VS5Set?e=ueZefR

263
Q

Pala Art: paintings?

A
  1. Manuscript paintings
  2. wall paintings
264
Q

Pala Art: Paintings: Manuscript paintings?

A

done generally on copper plate.
These were used for decorating purposes.
The colours used in these paintings were red, black, blue, green, white and violet.
examples
‘Ashtasahasarikpragyaparamita’ and ‘Panchraksh’. Both of these paintings are archived in Cambridge Museum (England).

265
Q

Pala Art: Paintings: Wall paintings?

A

Besides manuscript painting, wall paintings were also used to be done on the walls of Mahavihar, Chaityas, temples etc.

In these paintings various elements like fruits, flowers, animals, humans, birds and trees were imprinted.

One of the best examples of wall paintings of Pal period is a wall painting found from Saraikila (Nalanda). In this painting a woman can be seen doing make-up, while looking into a mirror. This painting shows the human emotions along with art simultaneously.

266
Q

Pala Art: Sculptural art forms?

A

The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors
It is influenced by Gupta Art

During this time, the style of sculpture changed from “Post-Gupta” to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp

  1. Bronze sculptures
  2. Stone sculptures
267
Q

Pala Art: Sculptural art forms: Bronze sculptures?

A

Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold

These are made up of bronze using molds.

One of the main characteristic features of these sculpture were excellent ornamentation used in them.

Another important feature of these sculptures was that they were plain from behind despite being ornamented and decorated from front.

Dhiman and Vithpal were two important sculptors of Nalanda, they were contemporary of Dharma Pal and Devpal (Pal rulers).

Bronze sculptures are found in large numbers from Kulkihar (Gaya), Nalanda and Sultanganj.

These sculptures can be compared with the aesthetics of the Natraj sculptures of Chola Empire.

These sculptures were mainly religious in nature, which include sculptures various god and goddesses of Hindus and Buddhists.

Important examples of this sculpture style were of Buddha, Vishnu, Balram, Bodhisatavas etc.

268
Q

Pala Art: Sculptural art forms: Stone sculptures?

A

Besides Bronze sculptures, sculptures were also made out of stones. The stones used for making these sculptures were mainly basalt. Which were brought from either Munger or Santhal Pargana.

Similar to bronze sculptures, ornamentation was also done in stone-made sculptures.

269
Q

Pala Art: Critical analysis?

A

Architectures in Pal period were generally made out of burnt Bricks instead of stones and rocks, which resulted into lesser permanence and availability now.

Sculptures of Pal art were plain from behind and only focus was on front.

Ornamentation was heavily used in the Pal sculptures, which hide the real beauty of the sculptures.

In Pal art religious aspects had more prominence that social, cultural and political aspects.

270
Q

pala Art: conclusion?

A

The Pal rulers maintained the tradition of art and culture developed during Mauryan Period raised them to a new level.

Multiple art forms developed vehemently during the period of Pal rulers. Despite the triangular conflict among Palas, Rashtrakutas and Gurjar-pratihars for occupation of Kannauj, various art forms were flourished during the Pal periods without any impediments.

The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under the Sena Empire.

271
Q

Patna Qalam Paintings: about?

A

world’s first independent school of painting which dealt exclusively with the commoner and his lifestyle

Principal centers were Patna, Danapur and Arrah.

origin

features

artists

present status

272
Q

Patna Qalam Paintings: Origin?

A
  • is an off-shoot of Mughal painting.
  • The origins of Patna Kalam are obscure and largely known from Ishwari Prasad’s account : the artists, a family of Kayasths, first lived in the Partabgarh district of Udaipur Rajputana, then migrated to the Mughal court around the 16th century. Declining patronage during the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707) was probably why the artists migrated to Murshidabad where, in addition to painting for their Nawabi patrons, they also created portraits for the European gentry.
  • However, in the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey (c.1757), Mir Jaffar’s son Miran alias Mohamed Sadiq Khan – ‘Nasir-ul-Mulk, Ala-u-Dowlah’ – drove the Hindu artists, amidst others, to migrate once more – this time to Patna. This group of migrants laid the foundation of what is now known as the Patna School of Painting. In Patna they came under patronage of local aristocracy and often Indophile scions of the early EIC
  • watercolour painting of the Chhat Festival of Bihar is believed to be one of the earliest examples of painting made for the British by Indian artists in Patna. In the painting, you see women gathered at the banks of the river, making offerings to the Sun God.
273
Q

Patna Qalam Paintings: features?

A
  • regarded as an off-shoot of Mughal painting, with influences from Persian and the Company painting style developed for British customers
    • portraits can be clearly seen having colours and linings from Mughal style, and the shading can be seen to be adopted from the British style
  • But distinct from Mughal paintings as well
    • Diverging from the Mughal and Persian style of wide and exquisitely decorated borders, Patna Kalam primarily focused on the subject of the painting.
    • Unlike Mughal painting, which focused on the royalty and court scenes, flag bearers of Patna Kalam were deeply influenced by daily life of common man, also a common subject in Company painting.
    • The Patna School tradition developed an individualistic style and technique, very different from the usual Mughal School (due to the the Persian influence) and the less formal Rajput School. Moreover, the Patna artists made their own pigments, brushes and paper as their ancestors did in the Mughal courts.
    • The color scheme of the Patna paintings underwent a change over the period of its evolution. The bright Mughal colors gave way to the fashionable somber hues of the print (when the picture was intended for a European market).
  • Patna paintings have a formalized precision, and are characterized by the perfect contours in facial features.
  • Pigments used to paint the subjects were derived from readily available natural sources.
    eg. Safaida color from a particular kind of earth from Kashgar, Blue from Indigo, red from red earth found near Kanpur
  • Their main subjects were local festivals, ceremonies, bazaar scenes, local rulers, and domestic activities
  • The paintings were done on diverse surfaces such as paper, mica, and even ivory diskettes, that were used as brooches.
  • A distinguishing characteristic of Patna Kalam is lack of any landscape, foreground or background.
  • Another characteristic was the development in the shading of solid forms.
    • In the early pictures shadow was painted by the old Mughal technique -darker tones of the same colour were applied. In the later versions of the painting, the shadow is shown with soft washes of color, just as in an English watercolor.
      https: //i1.wp.com/www.theheritagelab.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Patna-Kalam-19thc.jpg?ssl=1
  • Patna Kalam paintings are painted straightway with the brush without marking with pencil to delineate the contours of the picture and the procedure of painting is popularly known as ‘Kajli Seahi.’
274
Q

Patna Qalam Paintings: Artists?

A
  • Some well known painters of Patna Kalam were Sewak Ram, Hulas Lall, Shiv Lal, Shiva Dayal, Mahadeo Lal, and Ishwari Prasad Verma.
  • some famous paintings
    Nautch girls in a court (1860) – Shiva Lal
    Passenger in an Ekka by Shiva Lal (circa 1820-80). Patna
  • Sewak Ram
    • was an artist retained in the Durbar of the then Maharaja of Benares
    • In 1790, he migrated to Patna after his patron’s death and worked in the city until 1826.
    • An unusual feature of Sewak Ram’s work was the Kajli seahi technique, which required considerable skill in painting what were really ‘miniatures’. The smaller the dimensions of the picture, more difficult was the required brush touch.
    • Through his work, we get a glimpse into the festivals, culture and lives of people in Patna, icl Chhat, Holi, Muharram and Cattle fairs.
  • Shiva Lal and Shiva Dayal
    • From 1850 to 1880, Patna painting was dominated by the work of two brothers
    • Shiva Lal was called the Shahi Musavvir. The ‘Shahi’ salutation indicates that his family originally worked for the royal atelier (Mughals).
    • Shiva Dayal was retained in the Durbar of Rai Sultan Bahadur, a Rais of Patna City.
  • Ishwari Prasad
    • grandson of Shiva Lal
275
Q

Patna Qalam Paintings: today?

A

In the last decade of the 19th century, after the death of Shiva Lal and Shiva Dayal Lal, their studios too ceased to exist. One of the main reasons for the collapse was the advent of photography. The new technology fascinated everyone and reproductions of ‘Indian life’ became quicker and were surely more reliable.

Only three collections of Patna Kalam paintings exist in Bihar, one at the Patna Museum and others at Khuda Baksh library, Patna, and Patna University’s College of Arts and Crafts.

276
Q

Mauryan Art: Court Art: stupas?

A
  • Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from the vedic period. but it got development and current form during Mauryan period.
  • Diagram
    https: //1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUlaP96lfP1rnBbS?e=Slg2gn
  • According the scriptures of Buddhism Ashoka had made 84000 stupas across the country. But this claim is controversial as evidences of such a huge number of stupas are not found but it is possible that they were demolished in later periods.
  • Stupas were the palace of worship for Buddhists. it became an Emblem of Buddha Dharma and an important part of Buddhist monasteries.
    • In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the different events of Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
    • Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas.
  • consists of a hemispherical dome-shaped called under, harmika and 17 on the topic. sometimes there were circular Pathways and gateways.
  • material used : The center of the Stupa was of an unburnt break while the inverse external surface was made by utilizing consumed blocks, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster, and also the Toran was decorated with wooden sculptures.
  • Examples
    • Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
    • Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
    • Stupas built after the death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.
    • Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory path.

GS-1 (17 decks)

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