Indian freedom struggle Flashcards
Factors in Growth of modern nationalism?
- understandg of contradictions in INdian and colonial interests
- Political, administrative and economic unification of the country incl T&C
- western thought and education
- modern concepts of equality and liberty
- common language link- English
- Press and literature: in 1877, abt 170 newspapers in vernacular languages with a circulation of 100000+; also helped spread ideas of democracy, self-govt, rights etc.
- rediscovery of India’s past: elaborated in next FC
- socio-religious reform movements brought different sections together
- rise of middle class intelligentsia: provided leadership to INC initially
- worldwide upsurge of natinalism and self-determination concepts starting frm French revolution, liberation movements of Greece and Italy and Ireland
- reactionary policies and Racial arrogance of Rulers: elaborated in next to next FC
Factors in Growth of modern nationalism: rediscovery of India’s past?
- European scholars:
- Max ueller
- Monier Williams
- Roth and sassoon
- indian scholars
- RG bhandarkar
- RL Mitra
- Swami vivekananda
- self-respect and belief in Indian past
Factors in Growth of modern nationalism: reactionary policies and Racial arrogance of Rulers?
- Lytton’s reactionary policies like
- redn of max age limit fr ICS frm 21->19 (1876)
- Grand Delhi Durbar of 1877 whilst India was suffering frm famine
- vrnacular Press act, 1878
- Arms act 1878
- Ilbert Bill controversy: became clear to INdians that justice and fair play cannot be expected of british; also the organised agitation by Europeans to revoke Ilbert Bill also taught nationalists how to agitate fr certain rights and demands
Pre-Congress Political Associations in bengal?
- Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha
- Zamindari Association aka Landholders’ Society
- Bengal british India Society
- East INdia Association
- British Indian association
- INdia League
- Indiaan Association
Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha?
- 1836
- by associates of Raja Ram mohan Roy
- topics connected with policy and admin
- used petitions
Zamindari association?
- aka Landholers’ Society
- founder: Dwarkanath Tagore along with Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Radhakanta Deb, Ramkamal Sen and Bhabani Charan Mitra
- 1830
- Calcutta
- marks th beginning of consti agitation and organised political activity
- obj:
- securing a halt to the resumption of rent-free tenures
- an extension of the permanent settlement of land all over India
- reform of the judiciary, the police and the revenue departments was also on its agenda.
British India Society?
- founded in 1839 in London with the efforts of William Adam, one of the friends of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
- other supporters: George Thompson, William Ednis, and Major General Briggs.
- In 1841, this society started printing a newspaper “British Indian Advocate“
Bengal british India Society?
- 1843
- obj:
- The idea was to secure the welfare, and advance the interests of all classes, in pure loyalty to the government of the reigning sovereign of the British dominions.
- collection and dissemination of info abt actual conditions of people in british India
- use consti menas to secure welfare of all classes
- founder: George Thomson
- merged with Landholders’ society in 1851 to frm British Indian Association
- 2nd political org after Landholders’ society
British Indian association?
- 1851
- by merger of Landholders’ Society and Bengal British India Society
- thus, dominated by membrs of landed aristocracy with aim to safeguard their class interests
- Devendranath Tagore
- demands sent to british Parliament
- estab a separate legis of popular chracter
- executive-judicial fns separation
- reduction in salaries of higher officers
- abolition of salt duty, abkari and stammp duties
- partially accepted when, charter act of 1853, provided fr addition of 6 members fr legislative purposes to Viceroy’s executive council
East Indian association?
- estab by some Indian students in London on 1 October 1866 on initiative of Dadabhai Naoroji.
- backgrnd: In 19th century, many Indian students needed to go to England to qualify for the bar or the Covenanted Civil Service.
- Four such students viz. Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W. C. Bonnerjee and Manmohan Ghose had established the London Indian Society in 1865, on advice of dadabhai Naoroji
- key activities of the London Indian Society were to
- discuss the Indian political, social and literary subjects
- formulate the Indian grievances
- to counter the misrepresentations from India in English press.
- The London Indian Society was thus the first Indian organization to cross the border and formed abroad
- In 1866, it was superseded by East Indian association
India League?
- 1875
- Sisir Kumara Ghosh and Sambhu Charan Mukherjee
- to stimulate sense of natinalism among people; political edu
Indian association aka Indian National Association?
- most imp pre-Congress association; first avowed nationalist organization founded in British India
- superseded the India League
- 26th July 1876
- by anand Mohan Bose and surendranath bannerjee
- originally established as Bharat Sabha and held its first annual conference in Calcutta
- against the conservative and pro-landlord policies of british India association
- obj:
- create a strong public opinion on political questions
- involve nt only middle class bt also the masses,thus membership fee kept low
- branches outside Bengal too
- objected to redn of min age frm 21 to 19 and organised indian Civil Services Agitation
- merged with INC in Dec 1886
Indian society?
- Anand Mohan Bose
- 1872
- London
National indian association?
- founded in 1870
- by Mary Carpenter (Biographer of ramMohan roy) in Bristol, with the assistance of Keshub Chunder Sen.
- The organization’s full name was originally ‘National Indian Association in Aid of Social Progress in India’.
- initial aim of the association was to encourage female education in India. They also sought to educate and inform the British about Indian affairs
Pre-Congress political association in bombay?
- Bombay Association
- Bombay Presidency Association
- Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
Bombay Association?
- on lines of British India Association of Calcutta
- Aug 1852
- Jagannath Shankar Seth
Bombay Presidency Association?
- reactionary policies of Lytton and Illbert Bill Controversy led to
- 1885
- by the ‘Brothers in law’ representing the 3 chief communities of bombay :
- Pherozeshah mehta
- Badruddin Tyabji
- K.T.Telang
Poona sarvajank Sabha?
- at Poona
- by Just MG Ranade, Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi, S. H. Chiplunkar
- 1867
- obj: to serve as bridge betn people and govt
- worked in collab with Bombay Presidency Association
Pre-Congress political association in Madras?
- Madras Native Association
- Madras Mahajan Sabha
Madras Native Association?
- set up as branch of Britishh india Association of Calcutta
- Feb 1852
- GL chetty
- very little impact as it was run by officials
Madras Mahajan Sabha?
- by
- M. viraraghavchari
- G. Subramanya Iyer
- Ananda Charlu
- P Rangayya naidu
- may 1884
- demanded expansion of legislative councils with rep fr Indians
pre-congress campaign topics?
- for imposition of import duty on cotton 1875
- Indianisation of govt services-1878
- against Lytton’s afghan adventure
- against Arms act, VPA
- fr right to join volunteer corps
- against plntation labor and against inland Emigration act
- in support of Illbert bill
- fr an All india fund fr Political agitation
- campaign in Britain to vote fr pro-India party
- against redn in max age fr ICS
INC: predecessor?
Indian natinal Conference
- set up by Surendranath Bannerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose
- held two sessions in 1883and 1885
first session of INC?
- Bombay
- WomeshChandra bannerjee
- 72 delegates
Aims and objectives of INC?
- found a democratic and nationalist movement
- politicise and politically educate
- estab hqrs fr a movement
- promote friendly relations among political workers frm different parts of country
- propagate anti-colonial nationalist ideology
- formulate and present popular demands by unifying people over common econ and political prog
- develop a feeling of national unity
- promote an nurture Indian nationhood
Moderate approach?
- a british committe of INC was established in London in 1899
- published ‘india’
- it was even decided to hold 1892 session of INC in Londonbt didn’t fructify
Contributions of Moderate nationalists?
- economic critique
- constitutional reforms and propaganda in legislature
- campaign fr general administrative reforms
- defence of civil rights
Contri of moderate nationalists: economic critique?
- Dadabhai Nauroji: drain theory in his book “Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India”. Major components of this drain
- salaries and pensions of civil and military officers
- interest on loans taken by Indian govt frm abroad
- profits on foreign investment in INdia
- stores purchased in Britain fr civil and military deptt
- home charges [charges needed to maintain administration, army, war expense, pensions to returned officers and expense in maintaining the colony]
- Justice MG Ranade was his contemporary and taught an entire generation of Indians the importance of industrial development
- RC Dutt, in Economic History of INdia, examined minutely the entire economic impact of colonial rule from 1757
- GV Joshi, G Subramanium iyer, GK Gokhale, PC Ray were the others.
names of nominated INdians to Imperial Legislative Council betn 1861 and 1892?
- Syed Ahmed Khan
- Kristodas Pal
- VN Mandalik
- KL Nulkar
- Rashbehari Ghosh
Growth of Militant Nationalism: causes?
- Understanding the real nature of British government: economic miseries of 1890s (famines killed 9mn betn 1896 and 1900) further exposed exploitative character of govt
- Dissatisfaction over the reforms and laws: further curbs on freedoms; British rule no more progressive, instead suppressed education
- crease in confidence and growth of self-respect
- Aurobindo Ghosh, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal
- confidence about the capacity of masses for making sacrifices for attainment of Swaraj.
- Role of education: increased awareness plus rising unemploymnt
- International influences:
- rise of Japan economically and industrial after 1868
- 1896 Ethiopia defeated the Italian army
- Boer wars (1899- 1902): British loss
- Japanese victory against the Russians in 1905
- national movements of Ireland, Russia, Turkey, Egypt
- Reaction to increasing westernization in India: Revivalist and reformist Social reformers plus rediscovery of India’s past
- Dissatisfaction with ideology, methods and results of moderates i.e. 3 Ps-Prayer, petition and Protest-‘Political mendicancy’
- policies of Viceroy Lord Curzon
- rise of militant school leaders:
- Bengal: Raj Narain Bose, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipin Chndr Pal
- PJ: lala Lajapt Rai
- MH: Tilak
- demanded Swaraj or self-government as their ultimate aim
- They had faith in the capacity of masses and hence they favored direct actions
- Emergence of trained leadership: By the beginning of 20th century, trained and experienced political leadership had emerged
Growth of Militant Nationalism: causes: further curbs on freedoms?
- Council Act 1892 was a big disappointment:
- full of official nominees.
- The government did not fulfill the demands for increasing the number of Indians in the government services, reducing military expenditures etc
- government brought repressive laws under IPC 124 and 156A
- arrest of Tilak in 1897 fr his poem titled “Shivaji’s utterances” in Kesari that they claimed led to murder of plague commissioner Paul Rand
- 1897: natu bros (Damodar and Balkrishna Chaplekar) deported without trial
- 1899- no. of INdian members in Calcutta corporation reduced
- 1904: official secrets Act to curb freedom of press
- 1904: INdian Universities Act increased govt control over uni which it described as ‘factories of producing political revolutionaries’
Partition plan fr bengal?
- decision made public in Dec 1903
- divison otbo
- language: in such a way that the ‘new’ Bengal contained more Hindi and Odia speakers than bengali
- religion
- partition announced in July 1905
- actually came into effect on 16th Oct 1905
Anti-partition campaign under Moderates: leaders?
- Surendranath Bannerjee
- KK Mitra
- Prithiwishchandra (PC) ray
Anti-partition campaign under Moderates: betn Dec 1903 and July 1905?
used petitions to educate public opinion in india and england
- Hitabadi (Dwijendranath Tagore)
- Sanjibani and Bengalee (Surendranath Baneerjee)
Anti-partition campaign under Moderates: after July 1905 and before 16th Oct 1905?
- protest meetings in towns all over Bengal
- In such a meeting, on Aug 7th 1905, Boycott resolution was passed in Calcutta townhall, and Swadeshi movement was formally proclaimed
- boycott of Manchester clothes and LIverpool salt
4.
Anti-partition campaign under Moderates: after 16th Oct 1905?
- day observed as day of fasting; day of mourning
- bathed in ganga
- walked barefoot in processions singing Bande matram
- tied rakhis on each other hands
- Surendranath Bannerjee and Anand Mohan Bose addressed huge gatherings
- spread to other parts of country
- Poona and Bombay- Tilak
- PJ: lala Lajpat rai and Ajit SIngh
- Delhi: Syed Haider Raza
- Madras: Chidambaram Pillai
Bengal partition: Congress’ response?
- 1905: Benares; GK Gokhale;
- condemn partition and rectionary policies of Curzon
- support anti-partition and Swadeshi movement
- Extremist section wanted to take the movement all India and expand boycott to a full fledged mass struggle
- 1906: calcutta session: under Dadabhai Naoroji
- goal of INC was ‘swaraj’ like UK or colonies
- 1907: INC split
Anti partition : under extremists?
- took over after 1905
- emboldened by 1906 resolution of swaraj
- gave call fr ‘Passive resistance’ in addition to swadeshi and boycott movement. it included boycott of
- govt schools-colleges,
- govt service,
- courts
- legislative Councils
- municipalities
- Govt titles
- tried to transform i t into a mass struggle: “political freedom is the lifebreath of a nation” declared Aurobindo
- thus, goal of independence via self-sacrifice was given central place
- introduced new forms of struggle
Anti partition : under extremists: new forms of struggle?
- boycott and public burning of foreign goods
- refusal by priests to ritualise marriage with exchange of foreign goods
- refusal by washrmen
- public meetings and processions
- Samitis (Corps of volunteers): eg. Swadsh bandhab Samiti by Ashwini Kumar Dutt; sought to generate political consciousness among masses thru magic lantern lectures, songs, phyiscal and moral training, arbitration courts etc
- use of traditional popular festivals: eg Ganpati and shivaji festivals; traditional folk theatre in Bengal
- emphasis on ‘atma shakti‘: social reform campaigns and reassertion of national dignity
- swadeshi edu:
- Bengal National college, inspired by tagore’s Shantiniketan, with Aurobindo ghosh as its principal
- national Council of education set up in Aug 1906 fr literary, scientific and technical education
- edu thru vernacular medium
- Bengal insti of Tech; funds raised to send students to japan fr advanced learning
- swadeshi enterprises
- cultural sphere
Anti partition: cultural sphere?
- songs written by Rabindranath Tagore ( Amar SOnar Bangla), Rajnikant Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Mukunda das, Syed abu Mohammed
- painting: Abanindranath tagore broke domination of Victoriannaturalism and took inspirations frm Mughal, Ajanta and Rajput paintings
- Indian society of Oriental arts, founded in 1907
- nandlal Bose became first recepient of scholarship offered by it
- Science: Jagdish Chandra bose; Prafullachandra ray
Anti partition: extent of mass participation?
- students:
- women: processions and picketing
- Muslims:
- some participated like barrister Abdul rasul, Liaquat Hussian, Guznavi, Maulana azad
- bt most of upper and middle class muslims stayed away
- some supported partition led by Nawab salimullah of Dacca
- All INdia Muslim League formed in 1907
- some zamindars plus lower middle class of cities
- some attempt also made by workers by strikes in British owned concerns like Eastern Indian Railways bt limited impact coz of reluctance of Muslim peasants
Annulment of partition?
- 1911
- cause: to curb revolutionary terrorism
- to appease Muslims, capital shifted to Delhi
Calcutta session 1906?
- Dadabhai Naoroji
- asa concession to militants, goal of INC was defined as ‘swarajya or self-govt like UK or the colonies’
- word ‘swaraj’ mentioned fr the first time; bt its connotation nt spelt out, allowing different interpretations
- also a resolution supporting the programme of swadeshi, boycott and national education was passed
Surat split: immediate factors?
- Extrmists wanted it to be held at Nagpur (Central Provinces) with Tilak or Lajpat Rai as Prez; Moderates wanted it at Surat (Bombay Presidency) to exclude Tilak frm Presidency, and Rasbehari Ghosh (not Bose) as President
- Extremists also wanted reiteration of swadeshi, boycott and national education resolutions (passed in 1906 session); Moderates sought to drop these resolution, pining their hopes on upcoming Council reforms; Moderates wanted adherence to constitutional methods only
Servants of INdia Society?
- formed in Pune, Maharashtra, on June 12, 1905 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale,who left the Deccan Education Society to form this association
- other members: NA Dravid, Gopal Krishna Deodhar and Anant Patwardhan
- organized many campaigns to promote education, sanitation, health care and fight the social evils of untouchability and discrimination, alcoholism, poverty, oppression of women and domestic abuse
- publication of The Hitavada, the organ of the Society in English from Nagpur commenced in 1911.
Laws passed after 1907 split to check anti-govt activity?
- Seditious Meetings Act, 1907
- Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908
- Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908
- Indian Press Act, 1910
After 1908, national movement as a whole declined
Policy of ‘rallying them’?
- by John morley- Secy of state
- aka ‘carrot and stick’
- after Swadeshi and Boycott movements and emergence of militant nationalists
- 3-pronged approach of
- repression: extremists repressed mildly to frighten the Moderates
- conciliation: moderates placated thru some concessions and hope given fr further reforms if extremists reigned in
- supression: with moderates on their side and extremists isolated, latter would be supressed with full might
revolutionary activity: Phase I- before 1st WW: intro?
- disillusionement with both moderates and extremist leadership
- didn’t hope fr a violent mass struggle or of subverting army loyalties
- opted to follow Russian nihilists and Irish nationalists
- features:
- individual heroic actions
- swadeshi dacoities to raise funds
- during 1st WW, organising military conspiracies seeking help frm enemies of british
- idea was strike terror in hearts of rulers, arouse people and remove fear of authority
- Extremist leaders failed to ideologically oppose the revolutionaries
- ultimately this emerged as the most substantial legacy of Swadeshi Bengal
- overemphasis on Hindu religion kept Muslims aloof; no involvement of masses along with narrow upper caste social base of movement severely limited rev activity and thus was crushed by state m/c
revolutionary activity: Phase I- before 1st WW: Bengal?
- by 1870s, Calcutta’s student community-> many inactive secret societie
- first revolutinary grps in 1902,
- in Midnapore, under Jnanendranath Basu
- in Calcutta, Anushilan Samiti incl Promotha Mitter (founder), Jatindranath bannerjee, Barindra Kumar Ghosh etc.
- only giving physical and moral training to members; bt no actions until 1906
- April 1906: inner circle within Anushilan Samiti, incl barindra Kumar Ghosh and bhupendranath Dutta, started weekly Yugantar and conducted a few ‘abortive’ actions
- In 1907, attempt made by this grp on life of unpopular British official, Sir Fuller (first Lt, Guv of new province of Eastern bengal and Assam)
- Alipore conspiracy case: In 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw abomb at a carriage supposed to be caarrying Judge Kingsford in Muzzafarpur, instead killing 2 ladies; Chaki committed suicide. whole grp was arrested incl Ghosh bros (Aurobindo and barindra) and tried; Khudiram was tried and hanged ; Narindra Gosain, who turned approver, was shot dead
- 1908: Barrah dacoity org by Dacca anushilan smiti under Pulin Das
- by 1905, several newspapers, like Sandhya and Yugantar, started advocating revolutionary violence: “30cr people inhabiting India must raise their 60cr hnads to stop curse of oppression”
- Rashbehari Bose and Sachin sanyal org a secret society covering even PJ, Delhi and United Provinces; Rashbehari Bose and Sachin sanyal also threw a bomb at Viceroy’s Hardinge entry procession thru Chandi CHowk in Dec 1912
- some like Hemchandra Kanungo went abroad fr military and political training
revolutionary activity: Phase I- before 1st WW: MH?
- first rev-act: org of Ramosi peasants Force by vasudev balwant Phadke in 1879 to rid country of British by an armed revolt by disrupting communication lines; funds thru dacoities
- 1890s: Tilak propagated militant nationalism even thru violence by Ganpati and Shivaji festivals and his journals
- Newspapers like ‘Kal’, journals like ‘Kesari’ and ‘maharatta’
- his disciples: Chapekar bros murdered Plague commissioner of Poona, Rand and Lt. Ayerst in 1897
- Savarkar nd his brother organised ‘Mitra mela’, a secret society in 1899
- Abhinav Bharat superseded Mitra Mela in 1904 (modelled on Mazzini’s Young Italy)
- 1909: Jackson, DM of Nasik was killed
- Nasik, Poona and Bombay emrged as Bomb mfg centres
revolutionary activity: Phase I- before 1st WW: PJ?
- fuelled by issues like frequent famines plus rise in land revenues and irrigation taxes, ‘begar’ practices and events in bengal
- Lala Lajpat rai:
- Punjabee (motto: self-help at any cost)
- Ajit SIngh: organised Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore with its journal, bharat Mata; urged non-payment of revenue and water rates amon doab peasants; later turned violent
- Aga haider; Syed Haider Raza; Bhai Parmanand and radical urdu poet, lalchand Falak
- rev-act died down here quickly in May 1907 with deporattion of Lala and Ajit SIngh; after this, ajit Singh and associates like Sufi Ambaprasd, lalchand and bhai Parmamand developed into full scale rev.
revolutionary activity: Phase I- before 1st WW: Abroad?
EUROPE
- Shyamji Krishnaverma started ‘India House’- an Indian Home Rule society, in London, as a centre fr Indina students , a scholarship scheme to bring radical youth frm india, and a journal ‘the Sociologist’
- India House had members like Savarkar and Lala Hardayal and Madanlal Dhingra (who assasinated India Office bureaucrat Curzon Wyllie in 1909)
- soon London became dangerous fr revs (Savarkar extradited in 1910) and transported fr life in nasik conspiracy case (killing of DM)
- New centres emerged: paris and Geneva
- Madam bhikaji cama: bande Mataram
- ajit Singh
- When British=german relations worsened, Virendranath Chattopadhyay worked frm berlin
NORTH AMERICA
- Pre-Ghadr rev activities: by
- Ramdas Puri
- GD Kumar
- taraknath Das
- Sohan Singh Bhakna
- Lal hardayal (arrived in 1911)
- set up
- Swadesh Sevak home at Vancouver
- United India House at Seattle
Who was the only Viceroy of India to be murdered in office?
Lord Mayo
Sher Ali Afridi, also called Shere Ali, is known for killing Lord Mayo, the Viceroy of India, on 8 February 1872. He was a prisoner on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands at the time, sentenced for murder
Morley Minto reforms preceded by?
Shimla Deputation
- Oct 1906
- grp of Muslim elites led by Sir Aga Khan, met Lord into and demanded separate electorates fr Muslims and rep in excess of their numerical strength in view of the ‘value of their contribution to the defence of British empire.
formation of All India Muslim League?
- formation of a Muslim political party on the national level was seen as essential by 1901
- first considered at Muhammadan Educational Conference (by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan fr AMU funding and edu among Muslims), Lucknow in September 1906
- In 1886, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Educational Conference, but a self-imposed ban prevented it from discussing politics. Its original goal was to advocate for British education, especially science and literature, among India’s Muslims. The conference, in addition to generating funds for Sir Syed’s Aligarh Muslim University, motivated the Muslim upper class to propose an expansion of educational uplift elsewhere, known as the Aligarh Movement.
- then happened Shimla deputation
- Finally, at the annual meeting of the All-India Muhammadan Educational Conference,Dec 1906 at Dhaka, formally floated by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca and supported by
- Nawabs Mohsin ul Mulk
- Waqar ul Mulk
- Hakim Ajmal Khan
- Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar
- Zafar Ali Khan
- Syed Nabiullah
- Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah (Aga Khan III) was appointed the first honorary president of the Muslim League, though he did not attend the Dhaka session
- In 1913, Mohammed Ali Jinnah joined; bt lived most of 1920s in London
- leadership of the League was taken over by Sir Muhammad Iqbal, who in 1930 first put forward the demand for a separate Muslim state in India though didn’t use the word ‘Pakistan’
- 1933, Choudhary Rahmat Ali, founder of the Pakistan National Movement, voiced his ideas in the pamphlet entitled “Now or Never;Are We to Live or Perish Forever?” and gave ‘Pakistan’
- Until 1937, the Muslim League had remained an organisation of elite Indian Muslims, bt after that, under Jinnah’s leadership, its membership increased to millions
- In Lahore, in 1940, ML formally recommitted itself to creating an independent Muslim state which would be “wholly autonomous and sovereign”; Lahore Resolution, moved by the sitting Chief Minister of Bengal A. K. Fazlul Huq and its principles formed the foundation for Pakistan’s first constitution
who raised the issue of plight of indentured labourers and INdian workers in S. Africa in Imperial legislative council?
GK Gokhale
Morley Minto reforms: highlights?
- Number of elected members in the legislative councils, both at centre and provincial level, was increased
- In the provincial councils non official majority was introduced, but the overall non elected majority remained
- In the Imperial Legislative Council,
- total 69 members
- 37 officials and 32 non officials
- Of the non-officials, 5 nominated and 27 elected
- Among 27 elected, 13 general electorate, 8 Muslim separate electorate, 4 reserved for British capitalists and 2 reserved for landlords
- i.e. 69=37 (officials)+ 32 (non-officials)
=27 elected + 5 nominated
= 13 general electorates + 8 Muslim separate electorates + 4 reserved for British capitaists + 2 reserved for Landlords
- Elected members indirectly elected. Local bodies elected an electoral college which would elect members of provincial legislature who in turn would elect members of Central legislature
- Muslim representation:
- Separate electorate
- Representation in excess of the strength of their population
- The income qualification for Muslim voters was kept lower than that for Hindus
- Powers of Legislature,both at the centre and in provinces were enlarged. They could now pass resolutions (which may not be accepted), half questions nd supplementaries and vote separate items in the budget (but not the budget as a whole)
- One Indian was to be appointed to the viceroy executive Council (Satyendra Sinha was the first to be appointed in 1909)
revolutionary activities during 1st WW?
- North America: Ghadr party
- Europe: Berlin committee
- scattered mutinies like in Singapore
- rev activities in PJ and Bengal
revolutionary activities during 1st WW: Ghadr party?
- weekly newspaper: The Ghadr; hqrs at Sanfrancisco and branches along western US coast; estab in 1913
- incl mainly ex-soldiers and peasants who migrated frm PJ to USA and canada in search of beeter employment opp
- leaders:
- lala hardayal
- ramchandra
- Bhagwan Singh
- karatar SSingh Sarawa
- barkatullah
- Bhai Parmanand
- obj:
- organise assassination of officials
- publish revolutionary and anti-imperialist lit
- work among Indian troops stationed abroad
- procure arms brin abt a simultaneous revolt in all British colonies
- plans encouraged by
- 1st WW and
- Komagatu maru incident
- even though failed in armed rebellion coz of lack of a structured and organised leadership, sucess lied in preacing militant nationalism with completely secular ideology
Komagatu Maru incident?
- 370 passengers, Sikh and Muslim Punjabis wud-be immigrants travelling frm singapore to vancouver
- finally anchored at Calcutta
- created an explosive situation in PJ
revolutionary activities during 1st WW: Ghadrite revolution in India?
- enraged by Komagata Maru and encoraged by 1st WW, Ghadr leaders decided to launch a violent attack on British state in india
- Kartar Singh Saraba and raghubar dayal Gupta came to India and in India, Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal led the movement
- fr Funds, political dacoities; unique in that raiders targeted moneylenders and debt records along with cash
- fixed 21st feb 1915 as the D-day fr armed revolt in Ferozepur, Rawalpindi and lahore garrisons
- foiled at last moment due to treachery; grps disbanded; rashbehari Bose fled to japan while Sachin sanyal was transported fr life; British crushed it with full migt using ‘Defence of India Act 1915’
revolutionary activities during 1st WW: revolutionaries in Europe?
- Berlin committee for Indian independence estab in 1915 by Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Dutta, lala hardayal along with help of german foreign office under ‘Zimmerman plan’
- aimed to mobilise Indian settlers abroad to send volunteers and arms to India to incite rebellion among INdian troops and even organise an armed invasion
- sent missions to Baghdad, Persia, Kabul and Turkey to work among Indian troops and Indian PoWs and to incite anti-british feelings
- mission under raja mahendra Pratap SIngh Barkatullah and Obaidullah Sindhi went to Kabul to organise a provisonal indian govt there with the help of crown price Amanullah
Hindu-german conspiracy?
was a series of plans between 1914 and 1917 by Indian nationalist groups to attempt Pan-Indian rebellion against the British Raj during World War I
Other related events include the
- 1915 Singapore Mutiny,
- the Annie Larsen arms plot,
- the Jugantar–German plot,
- the German mission to Kabul,
- the mutiny of the Connaught Rangers in India, as well as, by some accounts,
- the Black Tom explosion in 1916
revolutionary activities during 1st WW: Singapore mutiny?
- under Jamadar Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul Gani and Subehdar Daud Khan
- crushed after a fierce battle
revolutionary activities during 1st WW: rev act in PJ nd Bengal?
- Ghadrite conspiracy with R. Bose and S. Sanyal
- most Bengal grps organised under jatin Mukherji (Bagha Jatin) and planned disruption of railway lines, seizure of Fort Williams and landing of German arms; bt failed due to poor plannin and Bagha Jatin died at Balasore, Odisha
- rev act cooled down after war, as
- prisoners released
- atm of conciliation after Montague’s Aug 1917 statement and talks of consti reforms
- emergence of gandhi
revolutionary activities died down after 1st WW: causes?
- prisoners released
- atm of conciliation after Montague’s Aug 1917 statement and talks of consti reforms
- emergence of gandhi
Home Rule League: intro? factors responsible?
- a less charged bt more effective response to 1st WW
- on lines of irish Home Rule Leagues
- represented a new trend of aggressive politics
- moderates disillusioned with Morley-Minto reforms
- burden of wartime miseries
- naked propaganda of imperialism laid bare
- Tilak and Besant ready to assume leadership; Tilak toned down and nw wnated a reform of admin and nt an overthrow of Govt and nt in favour of violence.
Home Rule League: build up?
- both Tilak and Besant understood need fr both extremsts and moderts
- failed at 1914 session; nd decided 2 revive poltical activity on their own
- 1915: AB launched a campaign to demand a self-govt after the war on lines of white colonies; campaigned thru her newspaper, new India and Coomonwealth.
- 1915 sesson: extremists were decided to be admitted to INC; though AB failed to get INC to approve her Home rule league scheme; instead INC committed to a programme of educative propaganda and revival of local level congress-committees; AB decided to launch HRL on her own
- Tilak and Besant set up their separate leagues to avoid any friction.
Home Rule League: Tilak’s league?
- Apr 1916
- resticted to MH (excluding Bombay city), KN, Central Provinces and Berar
- 6 branches
- demands:
- swarajya
- formation of linguistic states
- education in vernacular
Home Rule League: Besant’s league?
- Sept 1916
- in Madras
- covered all areas left by Tilak incl bombay city
- more loosely organised
- 200 branches
- George Arundale: org secy
- also, BW Wadia and CP Ramaswamy Aiyer
Home Rule League: other, later members? who stayed away?
- many disillusioned moderate Congressmen and members of Servants of INdia Society
- Motilal Nehru
- JL Nehru
- bhulabhai desai
- Chittaranjan das
- mada mohan Malviya
- Mohammad Ali Jinnah
- tej Bahadur sapru
- Lala Lajpat rai
- Anglo-Indians
- most of Muslims
- non-Brahmins frm South
Who rejected the title of Knighthood and refused to accept a position in the Council of the Secretary of State of India?
GK Gokhale
said. by accepting such honours he would cease to be Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Home rule programme?
- aimed to convey to common man message of Home rule as self-govt
- wider appeal; even hitherto ‘politically backward’ regions of GJ and Sindh
- promote political edu and discussion thru public meetings, libraries and reading rooms, conferences, classes, newspapers, plays, religiou songs
- organising social work
- participating in local govt activities
Home rule league: Govt response?
- severe repression
- Tilak barred frm entering PJ and delhi
- AB arrested in June 1917-> nationwide protest
- S. Subramaniya Iyer renounced his knigthood
- Tilak advocated a programme of passive resistance
- AB finally released in Sept 1917
Home rule league: why faded out? positives?
- faded out by 1919
- lack of effective org
- communal riots in 1917-18
- moderates who pacified by talks of reforms; Montague’s statement
- Talk of Passive resistance by extremists kept the moderates off frm activity frm Sept 1918 onwards
- Montague-Chelmsford reforms divided opinions; AB vacillated over her response while Tilak had to go abroad in Sept 1918
- shift to masses
- organisational link betn towns and countryside
- created a genertaion of ardent nationalists
- prepared masses fr Gandhian style politics
- influenced Aug 1917 declaration and ensuing reforms
- reunion of INC
Lucknow session,1916?
- presided by a moderate Ambika Charan Majumdar
- readmisson of extremists: factors:
- mellowing out of Tilak
- death ofGK Gokhale and Pherozeshah mehta, two oderates most opposed to extremists
- Lucknow pact betn INC and ML; presentation of common demands to govt:
- Govt shud declare that it wud confer self-govt on indians at an early date
- LCs shud be further expandedwith an elected majorityand shud be given more powers
- Half the members of Viceroy’s executive Council shud be indians
factors leading to INC-ML unity at Lucknow session?
- Britain’s refusal to help Turkey in its wars with Balkans (1912-13) and with Italy (1911)
- annulment of bengal partition
- refusal to british govt in india to set up a uni at Aligarh with powers to affliate colleges all over india alienated some Musims
- younger League members more inclined towards nationalistic obj; Calcutta session of ML (1912) committed ML to work with other grps fr a system of self-govt suited to India, provided it didn’t come in; conflict with its basic obj of protection of interests of Indian muslims; leaders like Mohammed Ali, Abul Kalam azad, hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasan Imam took over frm conservative aligarh school
- infuriated with british repression during war eg. Maulana Azaf’s Al Hilal and Mohammad Ali’s comrade were suppressed
- Congress accepted separate electorates and ML agreed to present joint consti demands along with Congress
7.
Montague’s statement?
Government’s policy is of an increasing participation of Indians in every branch of Administration and gradual development of self governing Institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire
Significance of Montague’s statement?
- nw onwards, demand by nationalists fr self-governance or HOme rule cud nt be termed as seditious since ‘self-govt by Indians’ became a govt policy, unlike Morley’s statement in 1909 that reforms were nt intended to give self-govt to India
- objections to the statement by India’s leaders:
- no specific time frame given
- Govt was the sole aouthority to decide nature and timing of advance towards responsible govt
Congress’ response to Montague Chelmsford reforms?
- special session in August 1918 at Bombay under Hasan Imam’s presidency
- “disappointing” and “unsatisfactory” and
demanded effective self-government instead - termed “unworthy and disappointing—a sunless dawn” by Tilak,
- Annie Besant found them “unworthy of England to offer and India
to accept”.
Causes for Nationalist resurgence near the end of first world war?
- Post war economic hardship:
- Industry: first an increase in prices then a recession coupled with increased foreign investment brought many Industries to the brink of closure and loss
- workers nd artisans: unemployment and high prices
- peasantry: high taxation and poverty
- soldiers: shared their experiences from abroad to the rural folk
- educated urban classes: unemployment
- High Expectations of political gains from the government in return for support
- Nationalist disillusionment with imperialism worldwide: it became clear from the Paris Peace Conference that the imperialist powers had no intentions of losing their hold over the colonies and in fact they went on to divide the colonies of the defeated powers among themselves
- The world war eroded the myth of the cultural and military superiority of the whites
- October revolution in Russia brought home the message that immense power leave the people and the masses were capable of challenging the mightiest of tyrants provided they were organised, United and determined
- Disappointment with Montford reforms
- jalianwala Bagh massacre and Hunter commission; Rowlatt Act
- Lucknow pact brought together INC and ML
Gandhi in south Africa
- went there in April 1893; stayed upto 1914
- moderate phase of struggle : 1894- 1906
- phase of passive resistance or satyaraha 1906-1914
Gandhian struggle in Africa: backgrnd?
three categories—
- the indentured Indian labour, mainly from south India, who had migrated to South Africa after 1890 to work on sugar plantations;
- the merchants—mostly Meman Muslims who had followed the labourers; and
- the ex-indentured labourers who had settled down with their children in South Africa after the expiry of their contracts.
- These Indians were mostly illiterate and had little or no knowledge of English with many disabilities.
- They were denied the right to vote.
- They could reside only in prescribed locations which were insanitary and congested.
- In some colonies, Asians and Africans could not stay out of doors after 9 PM nor could they use public footpaths.
Gandhi in SA: moderate phase of struggle?
1894-1906
To unite different sections of Indians, he set up the Natal Indian
Congress and started a paper Indian Opinion.
Gandhi in SA: Extremist phase of struggle?
- Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906)
- formed the Passive Resistance Association
- after arresting, authorities used deceit to make these defiant Indians register themselves
- publicly burning their registration certificates
- compromise settlement
- Campaign against Restrictions on Indian Migration
- Campaign against Poll Tax and Invalidation of Indian Marriages
- poll tax of three pounds was imposed on all ex-indentured Indians; widened the base of the campaign
- an insult to the honour of women and many women were drawn into the movement
- Protest against Transvaal Immigration Act
- violated it willingly by going frm Natal into Traansval
- strikes in mines and plantations
- In India, Gokhale toured the whole country mobilising public opinion in support of the Indians in SA.
- Even the viceroy, Lord Hardinge, condemned the repression and called for an impartial enquiry
- through a series of negotiations involving Gandhi, Lord Hardinge, C.F. Andrews and General Smuts, an agreement was reached by which the Government of South Africa conceded the major Indian demands relating to the poll tax, the registration certificates and marriages solemnised according to Indian rites
tolstoy farm?
- founded in 1910 and named as such by Gandhi’s associate, Herman Kallenbach, after the Russian writer and moralist, whom Gandhi admired and corresponded with.
- Besides being an experiment in education, it was to house the families of the satyagrahis and to give them a way to sustain themselves
- Similarly, earlier He had set up the Phoenix Farm in 1904 in Natal, inspired by a reading of John Ruskin’s Unto This Last, a critique of capitalism, and a work that extolled the virtues of the simple life of love, labour, and the dignity of human beings
- highligts:
- manual work
- vocational training
- co-ed classes
- cooking, scavenging, sandal-making
- worked until 1913
Basic tenets of Gandhi’s satyagraha?
- A satyagrahi was not to submit to what he considered
as wrong, but was to always remain truthful, non-violent and
fearless.
● A satyagrahi works on the principles of withdrawal
of cooperation and boycott.
● Methods of satyagraha include non-payment of taxes,
and declining honours and positions of authority.
● A satyagrahi should be ready to accept suffering in
his struggle against the wrong-doer. This suffering was to be
a part of his love for truth.
● Even while carrying out his struggle against the
wrong-doer, a true satyagrahi would have no ill feeling for
the wrong-doer; hatred would be alien to his nature.
● A true satyagrahi would never bow before the evil,
whatever the consequence.
● Only the brave and strong could practise satyagraha;
it was not for the weak and cowardly. Even violence was
preferred to cowardice. Thought was never to be separated
from practice. In other words, ends could not justify the
means.
Gandhiji and Hinduism
OR
Gandhiji and Religion
OR
Gandhi vs Communalism
Gokhale, said Gandhi, “was a Hindu, but of the right type. A Hindu Sannyasi once came to him and made a proposal to push the Hindu political cause in a way which would suppress the Mahommedan and he pressed his proposal with many specious religious reasons. Mr. Gokhale replied to this person in the following words: ‘If to be a Hindu I must do as you wish me to do, please publish it abroad that I am not a Hindu’.”
Like his teacher, Gokhale, he refused the temptation to define India as a Hindu nation. Like Gokhale again, he worked ceaselessly to build bridges between India’s major religious communities, Hindus and Muslims.
Gandhi believed that people of all faiths had equal rights to the country and all that it represented.
In an important booklet he published in 1945 on his party’s Constructive Programme, the first element in was “communal unity”, preceding other subjects such as the abolition of untouchability, the promotion of khadi, the upliftment of women, and the pursuit of economic equality (all of which were also dear to him). In this crucial introductory section, Gandhi wrote that “the first thing essential” for achieving communal unity is “for every Congressman, whatever his religion may be, to represent in his own person Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Zorostrian, Jew, etc., shortly, every Hindu and non-Hindu. He has to feel his identity with every one of the millions of the inhabitants of Hindustan. In order to realize this, every Congressman will cultivate personal friendships with persons representing faiths other than his own. He should have the same regard for the other faiths as he has for his own”
His heroic fasts for communal harmony in Calcutta in September 1947 and in Delhi in January 1948 have been extensively written about
Gandhiji on moderate politics and Home rule league?
- convinced about the limitations of moderate politics
- was also not in favourof Home Rule agitation which was becoming popular at that time. He thought that it was not the best time to agitate for Home Rule when Britain was in the middle of a war.
- He was convinced that the only technique capable of meeting the nationalist aims was a non-violent satyagraha. He also said that he would join no political organisation unless it too accepted the creed of non-violent satyagraha.
the first three satyagrahas of Gandhiji: intro?
- Champaran:1917- first Civil disobedience
- Ahmedabad Mill strike: 1918- First Hunger strike
- Kheda satyagraha: 1918- First non-coop
- Satyagraha against Rowlatt act: 1919- First mass strike
Champaran satyagraha?
- tinkathia (3/20th) indigo
- Rajkumar Shukla
- MKG joined by Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul- Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh, and J.B. Kripalani
- other leaders: Brajkishore Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ramnavmi Prasad, Babu Gaya Prasad and Shambhusharan Varma.
- later JN Nehru also
- Gandhi was able to convince the authorities that
the tinkathia system should be abolished and that the
peasants should be compensated for the illegal dues extracted
from them (upto 25%)
Ahmedabad Mill Strike?
- March 1918
- issue of discontinuation of the plague bonus; The mill owners
wanted to withdraw the bonus. The workers were demanding
a rise of 50 per cent in their wages so that they could manage
in the times of wartime inflation; mill owners ready fr only 20% - striking workers being arbitrarily dismissed; weavers brought from Bombay
- sought help frm Anusuya Sarabhai aka Anusuya Ben, who went to gandhiji
- also the sister of Ambalal Sarabhai, one of the mill owners and the president of the Ahmedabad Mill Owners Association
- was the India’s first female union leader; Ahmedabad Textile
Labour Association in 1920.
- Gandhi asked the workers too on a strike and demand a 35 per cent increase in wages instead of 50 per cent.
- undertook a fast unto death;finally agrred to submit issue to a tribunal; tribunal rewarded 35% raise
Kheda satyagraha?
- According to the Revenue Code, if the yield was less than one-fourth the normal produce, the farmers were entitled to remission
- Gujarat Sabha, consisting of the peasants, submitted petitions that the revenue assessment for the year 1919 be suspended
- gandhiji spiritual head
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and a group of other devoted
Gandhians, namely, Narahari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya and
Ravi Shankar Vyas,who went around the villages, organised
the villagers - remarkable in that discipline and unity
- Finally, It agreed to suspend the tax for the year in question, and for the next; reduce the increase in rate; and return all the confiscated property
- struggle at Kheda brought a new awakening among
the peasantry. They became aware that they would not be free
of injustice and exploitation unless and until their country
achieved complete independence
Montford reforms?
Montague-chelmsford reforms
Rowlatt act?
- passed in March 1919 even though every single Indian member (incl Jinnah, MMMalviya and MazharulHaq, who resigned in protest) of Central LC opposed it.
- officially called “Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act”
- on the recommendation of Rowlatt Commission, headed by
the British judge, Sir Sidney Rowlatt, to investigate the
‘seditious conspiracy’ of the Indian people - objective was to replace the repressive provisions of the wartime Defence of India Act (1915) by a permanent law
- features:
- allowed political activists to be tried without juries or even imprisoned without trial
- without warrant on the mere suspicion of ‘treason
- could be tried in secrecy without recourse to legal help
- special cell consisting of three high court judges
was to try such suspects and there was no court of appeal
above that panel - could even accept evidence not acceptable under the Indian Evidences Act
- even possession of seditious newspapers would be adequate evidence of guilt
Rowlatt satyagraha?
- gandhiji called it ‘Black act’
- called for a mass protest at all India level
- organised a Satyagraha Sabha and roped in younger members of Home Rule Leagues and the Pan Islamists
- method of protest:
- nationwide hartal (strike) accompanied by
- fasting and prayer,
- civil disobedience against specific laws, and
- courting arrest and imprisonment
- to be launched on April 6, 1919 but before it could be launched, there were large-scale violent, anti-British demonstrations, esp in PJ, where situation worsened due to wartime repression, forcible
recruitments and ravages of disease - April 1919 saw the biggest and the most violent anti-British upsurge since 1857
- LG of PJ Sir Michael O’Dwyer, is said to have used aircraft
strafing against the violent protestors
Marcella Sherwood: is related to?
Rowlatt protests and Jallianwala bagh massacre
In PJ riots before rowlatt satyagraha, five Englishmen are reported to have been killed and Marcella Sherwood, an English woman
missionary going on a bicycle, was beaten up.
resolutions passed in Jallianwala bagh? massacre impact?
2 resolutions
- one calling for the repeal of the Rowlatt Act and
- the other condemning the firing on April 10, had been passed
- 1650 bellets fired; as per INC, >1000 dead and >1500 injured
- Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-i-Hind, bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War.
- withdrew the movement on April 18, 1919.
- Gandhi declared that cooperation with a ‘satanic regime’ was now impossible
- For Bhagat Singh’s Bharat Naujawan Sabha, the massacre was to act as a symbol that would help overcome the apathy that came in the wake of the end of the NCM
- Udham Singh, who bore the name, Ram Mohammad
Singh Azad, later assassinated Michael O’Dwyer (LG, nt the one who ordered shooting) - hunter committee; three Indians among the members, namely,
Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, Pandit Jagat Narayan and ardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan; final report, released in
March 1920, unanimously condemned Dyer’s actions bt didn’t imposeany penal or disciplinary action; also before the commssion proceedings, govt had passed an ‘Indemnity act’ aka white-washing bill - marked the decisive moment when Indians were alienated from British rule”
Indian National Congress appointed its own non-official
committee on Jallianwala Bagh massacre. members?
Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M.R. Jayakar and Gandhi
criticised Dyer’s act as inhuman and
also said that there was no justification in the introduction
of the martial law in Punjab.
- Khilafat committe?
- Demands ?
- progress?
- COngress’ stand on Khilafat issue?
- ML stand?
- under leadership of ali bros (Shaukat Ali and Muhammed ali), Maulanaazad, Azmal Khan and hasrat Mohani; President of all india Khilafat committe was Gandhiji
- demands:
- Khalifa’s control over Muslim sacred places shud be retained
- Khalifa shud be left with sufficient territories after territorial arrangements
- initially tried petitions and requests; then in Nov 1919, All india KHilafat conference, called fr boycott of British goods and threatened complete non-coop until demands met
- though Gandhi was in favour of NCM in support of Khilafat issue, INC was not united on this; Tilak opposed to alliance over a religious issue; NCM was also opposed on provisions like boycott of councils; But finally INC gave approval, seeking to take advantage of this opportune unity
- ML agreed to give full support to INC and its agitation on political ques
Road up to Khilafat and NCM?
- Feb 1920: joint Hidu Muslim depuattion sent to Viceroy; Gandhi declared that “Khilafat ques has overshadowed PJ wrongs and consti advances”
- May 1920: Treaty of Sevres with turkey; dismembered
- June 1920: all party conference at allahabad approved boycott prog and asked Gandhi to lead it
- Aug 31st 1920: Formal lauch of NCM by Khilafat committee; Tilak died on Aug 1st 1920
- Sept 1920: special INC session at calcuttaapproved NCM till PJ and Khilafat wrongs were removed and swaraj estab
- dec 1920: Nagpur session of INC: organisational changes
Special Calcutta session of 1920?
approved NCM and described activities in NCM
- boycott govt schools and colleges
- law courts; instead panchayat justice
- LC; thogh some leaders like CR Das weren’t willing fr this by bowed to party discipline; thus, INC boycotted 1920 elections along with majority of voters
- foreign cloth; instead Khadi with hand spinning
- no govt honors and titles
- work for H-M unity and removal of untouchability and adhere to non-violence
- second phase cud include mass CDM incl resignation frm govt services and non payment of taxes
Nagpur session of INC 1920?
- endorsed NCM
- nw obj: “attainment of self-governance thru peaceful and legitimate means” unlike “earlier constitutinal means only”
- CWC of 15 members set up
- provinvial INC committees set up on linguistic basis
- ward committees organised
- entry fee reduced
- gandhi declared if NCM implemented completely, swaraj within a yr.
Other grps response on launch of NCM?
- ML supported consti demands of INC in return
- many grps of revolutionary, terrorists pledged support to INC
- some leaders like MA Jinnah, annie Besant, GS Kharpade and BC Pal left INC as they believed in constitutional and lawful struggle
- Surendranath bannerjee founded Indian National Liberal Foundation