Medieval History and Travellers Flashcards
Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:
BCE?
- Megasthenes-3rd cent BC- Greek ambassador- Chandragupta Maurya
- Deimachos- 3rd-4th cent BC- Greek ambassador-Bindusara-replaced Megasthenes
Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:
0-1000 AD?
- Ptolemy- 130AD
- Fa-Hien- 405 AD- Chinese Buddhist monk- Chandragupta II
- Hiuen Tsang- 630 AD- Chinese Buddhist monk- Harshavardhana
- I-Tsing- 670AD- Chinese traveller
- Al-Masudi- 950 AD- Arab traveller
Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:
1000-1200AD?
Al Beruni- 1025 AD- muslim scholar- Mahmud Ghazni
Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:
1200-1400 AD?
- Marco polo- 1292 AD- Venetian traveller- Pandyan ruler of Madurai, Madvarman, Klshekhara
- Ibn Batuta- 1333 AD- Morrish traveller- muhammed bin Tughluq
- Shihabuddin al Umari- 1350AD
Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:
1400-1600 AD?
- Nicolo Conti- 1420- Venetian traveller- Devraya I of Sangam Dynasty of Vijayanagar empire
- Abdur razzaq- 1440AD- Persian ambassador of Shahrukh of Timurid dynasty to Calicut- Devraya II of Sangam dynasty of Vijaynagar Empire
- Athanasius Niktin- 1470- Russian merchnat- visited capital of Vijaynagara emire, Hampi and wrote about it
- Duarte Barbosa- 1500- Portugese
- Domingo Paes- 1520- Portugese traveller- Krishnadeva Raya of Vijaynagara empire
- Fernao Nuniz- 1535- Portugese merchant- Achyutdeva Raya of Tuluv dynasty of vijayanagar Empire
- Antonio Monserrate- 1536-Spanish- Akbar’s court
Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:
1600-1800 AD?
- Peter Mundy- 1600-England
- William Hawkins- 1608- Ambassador of James I, king of England
- Sir Thomas Roe- 1615- Ambassador of James I, king of England
- Mahmud Wali Balkhi- 1626
- John Albert de Mandesto- 1640- German traveller
- Jean Baptiste Tavernier- 1640- Visited India 6 times in the reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
- Nicolao Manucci- 1650- got service at the court of Dara Shikoh.
- Francois Bernier- 1656- Aurangzeb
- Giovanni Careri: 1690
- Joseph Tieffenthaler- 1710- missionary
- Robert Montgomery Martin- 1800AD
Megasthenes?
- 302-298 BC
- Greek ethnographer & ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, who visited in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta was known to the Greeks as Sandrocottus.
- Wrote an interesting book Indica. descibed the following:
- India is a quadrilateral-shaped country, bounded by the ocean on the southern and the eastern side.
- has many large and navigable rivers, which arise in the mountains on its northern border.
- Gold, silver, copper and iron are abundant on Indian soil. Besides tin and other metals are used for making a number of tools, weapons, ornaments, and other articles.
- India has very fertile plains, and irrigation is practiced widely. The main crops include rice, millet, a crop called bosporum, other cereals, pulses and other food plants. There are two crop cycles per year, since rain falls in both summer and winter. During winter, wheat is sown.
- A law, prescribed by ancient Indian philosophers, bans slavery. The law treats everyone equally, but allows the property to be unevenly distributed.
- population of India is divided into 7 hereditary castes: Philosophers, farmers, herders, artisans, Overseers,Councillors and Assessors and military.
- No famines have ever occurred in India
- India has no foreign colony, and Indians have not established any colonies outside India
- foreigners are treated well. Special officers are appointed to ensure that no foreigner is harmed, and judges hand out harsh punishment to those who take unfair advantage of the foreigners.
- Indians are of above average stature, because of abundant food, fine water and pure air. They are well-skilled in art
Ptolemy?
130 AD
Wrote “Geography of India” which gives the description of Ancient India.
Fa-Hien?
- 405-411 AD
- Chinese Buddhist monk
- Came to India in the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. Does not mention Nalanda uni since it was created by Chandragupta II’s son- Kumaragupta I
- Visited the birth place of Buddha, Lumbini, Peshawar, Taxila, Mathura, Kannauj, Sravsti, Kapilavastu, Sarnath as well as Ceylon
- His Travelogue “Records of Buddhist Kingdoms”. His primary aim was to visit the Buddhist religious places and to take with him the copies of the Buddhist religious texts.
- As his main interest was religion, we know nothing about the political condition of India from his account. He did not mention even the name of Chandra Gupta II .However, his account helps us to know something about the social and religious condition of that period.
- It is inferred that the administration of the Guptas was liberal, the people enjoyed economic prosperity and the burden of taxes on them was not heavy.
- There were a few quarrels or disputes and the people rarely felt the necessity to approach the judiciary. Mostly, corporal punishment was avoided.
- government servants were paid in cash and they were barred from taking presents or bribery from the people.
- Monasteries, Sanghas, temples and their property and other religious endowments were free from government taxes.
- Buddhism and Hinduism were the most popular religions at that time. Buddhism was more popular in Punjab, Bengal and the region around Mathura. emperor worshipped Vishnu but he was tolerant to other faiths.
- Fa-hien lived in Pataliputra for nearly three years and studied the Sanskrit language. He described that there were separate Sanghas both of the Hinayana and Mahayana sects, which provided education to students gathered from all parts of India. The Palace of Emperor Asoka also existed at that time, about which Fa-hien remarked that “it might have been built not by men but by gods’. Fa-hien was also very much impressed by chariot-processions here.
- According to him India had trade relations with China, countries of south-east Asia and western Asia as well as with Europe. On its western sea-coast, India had ports like Cambay, Sopara and Baroach while on its eastern coast Tamralipti was a famous port from w here Fa-hien went to Sri Lanka on an Indian ship.
- mentions Chandragupta II as first Gupta to issue silver coins. also issued Gold coins for big transactions, whereas smaller transactions done by barter and cowries (shells)
- Gangetic valley: “Land of Brahminism”, practice of untouchability
Hiuen Tsang?
- 630-645 AD
- Chinese Buddhist- Mahayana monk- “Prince of pilgrim”
- Visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana. accepted as the best available source of knowing the administrative, social and cultural condition of India at that time. However, his account of India is not entirely dependable and unbiased
- Book is “Si-Yu-Ki or the records of western world”
- He remained at the University of Nalanda for about five years. Nalanda gave 3 Buddhism courses- theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana; visited South India as well, as far as Kanchi.
- Harsha called a religious assembly at Kannauj to honour him. Hiuen Tsang presided over that assembly. He also mentions Allahabad Buddhist conference
- City life of INdia: houses were of varied types and were constructed with wood, bricks and dung. The city-streets were circular and dirty. Many old cities were in ruins while new cities had grown up.
- Prayag was an important city while the importance of Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj, described by him as a beautiful city. Sravasti and Kapilvastu had lost their religious importance. Instead, Nalanda and Valabhi were the centres of Buddhist learning.
- Indians used cotton, silk and wool for their garments and these were of varied types. mostly veg and beef was banned
- also mentions sati system and caste system; executioners and scavengers lived outside the city acc to Manusmriti; Purdah system as well but not in higher castes
- He described Indians as lovers of education, literature and fine arts.
- Mostly the education was religious and was provided orally. Many texts were put in writing and their script was Sanskrit.
- According to him, Harsha used to spend 3/4th of the state-income for religious purposes.
- He, however, described that travelling was not very much safe at that time.
- main source of income of the state was land-revenue which formed 1/6th of the produce. Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha divided his income into four parts. One part of it was spent on administrative routine of the state; the second part of it was distributed among government employees; the third of it was given to scholars; and the fourth part of it was given in charity to Brahamanas and the Buddhist monks.
- He described Harsha as a perfect HInayana Buddhist (shaivite early in his life). He agreed that Hinduism was more widely popular in India at that time as compared to Buddhism.
- wrote that India had a brisk trade with foreign countries and there were prosperous city- ports on its sea-coast both in the East and the West. India exported cloth, sandalwood, medicinal herbs, ivory, pearls, spices etc. to foreign countries and imported gold, silver and horses.
Al Masudi?
957AD
Al Masudi, an Arab writer, visited India in the 9th century A.D. during the reign of Mihira Bhoja of Kanauj.
given account of India in his book Muruj ul Zehab
Al Berauni?
- 1024AD
- He was a Persian scholar, but came from Uzbekistan. Came along with Mahmud Ghazni during one of his Indian raids.
- poly-linguist: Syriac, Arabic, Persian, hebrew and Sanskrit; was also familiar with Greek works of PLato and others from their Arabic translations
- First Muslim Scholar to study India also known as founder of Indology.
- Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind.
Kitab ul HInd?
by Al-Berauni
- It is divided into 80 chapters on subjects like religion and philosophy, festivals. astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, weight and measures, social life etc.
- extensively quotes from Sasnkrit literature like Patanjali, Gita, Puranas, Samkhya philosophy etc.
- began each chapter with a question, followed by Sanskrit descriptions and concluding with comparison with other cultures
- It is one of the most important discussion on India sciences, religion and society; elaborates on HIndu-muslim enmity and its possible reasons
- mentions rigid caste str-
- Chatur varna system and its origin and untouchability, which he disapproves of;
- based his understanding from brahmanical texts but ground situation was not as rigid
- he lists 8 antyaja castes below Shudras, not aprt of chatur varna; but were included in economic network
- names unctocuhable castes;
- discusses concept of moksha that can be attainable by all castes;
- mentions similar divisions in other societies;
- notices fast degradation of vaishyas into shudras and the alliance of brahmanas and kshatriyas;
- describes aversion to long distance travel leading to a closed society.
- mentions social evil like child marriage, sati, low position of women and widows.
- he enlists all important festivals
literary contributions of Al Birauni?
- Kitab ul HInd
- took Aryabhata’s teachings to west and translated Euclid’s work to Sanskrit and Patanjali’s work on Grammar into Arabictook Aryabhata’s teachings to west and translated Euclid’s work to Sanskrit and Patanjali’s work on Grammar into Arabic
Marco polo?
- Venetian traveller
- 1292AD- during reign of Pandyan ruler of Madurai, Madverman Kulshekhara and Rudramadevi of Kakatiyas
- describes naked people, of all status; bare minimum clothing, even by king
- describes King being covered with jewelleries; calls the Pandyan Kingdom as “The Richest and most splendid province in the World”
- widespread chewing of betel leaves
- high stds of sanitation like bathing twice, personal drinking vessel, using right hand only for eating
- describes Jainas and their non-violent ways of life
- describes Sati
- temple monasteries have both male and female deities
- There is practice that some parents present their girl child to idol which they entertain a great devotion.[Devaradiyar practice]
- horse trade was important
- Kings practised polygamy
Ibn Batuta: intro?
- Moroccan traveller, born in Tangier; Dar al-Islam is the area inside the black border was made by Ibn Battuta, as he mainly travelled to those countries which had a Muslim rule.
- 1333 AD- during reign of Muhammed Bin Tughluq; appointed as qazi
- book: “Rehla” written in Arabic
observation by Ibn battuta in Rehla?
- describes : coconut and Paan
- wrote about Qutb complex and Quwat al Islam mosque
- noted about the long famine which lasted for about seven year from 1335 AD, which killed many people near Delhi, and during this time the Sultan was busy in attacking the rebellions. describes plight of people during transfer of capital to Daulatabad
- Raziya sultan rode on horseback, no purdah
- provides useful info abt Tughluq admin, esp espionage and communication as well as credit system. he mentions postal system by horse and human runners
- provides info on slavery, caste system, sati system, trade incl import of horses
- does not mention token coins as he arrived after it was done away with
- says that travelling was not much safe; he was attacked by Hindu robbers-> hindu-Muslim discord
- found the cities densely populated and prosperous- crowded streets, colorful markets. markets also had mosques and temples as well as places for dancers and singers
- describes city of Delhi. its 28 gates esp Budaun darwaza as the greatest
other places visited by Ibn Battuta?
also visited Calicut, Bengal, Assam, Maldives and Ceylon on his way to China as an ambassador to Mongul court from the Sultan. also gives account of Vijaynagara empire
Nicolo Conti?
- venetian traveller
- 1420 AD- during rule of Devraya I of Sangam dynasty of Vijaynagara empir
- refers to the prevalence of slavery and Sati
william Finch?
came with William hawkins in 1608 at surat
gave the earliest english language account of Kashmir, as well as trade routes connecting PJ and eastern Turkistan and western China
visited Ayodhya bet 1608 and 1611 and did not find any building of importance of Islamic origin. He is cited in SC’s Ayodhya verdict
refers Ram chandra as Ranichand, mentions Ramkot or fort of rama
sir Thomas Roe?
- visited India during the reign of Jahangir in 1615.
- He came to seek protection for an English factory at Surat.
- His “Journal of the Mission to the Mughal Empire” is a treasured contribution to the history of India.
Francois Bernier?
- 1656 AD
- He was a French physician and traveller.
- He visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan.
- He was physician to Prince Dara Shikoh and later was attached to Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the court of Aurangzeb
- ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ was written by Francois Bernier. compared INdia and europe. found situation in India bleak
- Mughals owned all land and distributed among nobles
- no pvt property unlike Europe- disastrous consequences coz sons won’t inherit and so won’t develop
- NO middle class, only rich and poor; this was not true as 15% of pop lived in towns, higher than in Europe
- talks of Karkhanas (only detailed record of Karkhanas) and sati system
- says that vast quantities of world’s precious metal flowed into India, as manufacturers were exported in exchange for gold and silver; notes existence of a prosperous merchnat community engaged in long distance exchange
Giovanni Careri?
Italian traveller
passed through India c. 1690
provides a graphic account about the way silver travelled across the globe to reach India. It also gives us an idea of the phenomenal amounts of cash and commodity transactions in seventeenth-century India.
Joseph Tieffenthaler?
- 1710-1785 AD
- was a Italian missionary
- book: Description Historique et Geographique De l’Inde
- commissioned at famous observatory of Sawai Jai singh, Raja of Jaipur and later at the Jesuit college in Agra that built with the patronage of Akbar
- said to have lived in Awadh, where Ayodhya is located
- cited by SC in Ayodhya judgement: ““Emperor Aurengzeb got the fortress called Ramcot demolished and got a Muslim temple, with triple domes, constructed at the same place. Others say that it was constructed by ‘Babor’. “
Robert Montgomery Martin?
- 1801 AD
- anglo-Irish author
- practiced medicine in Ceylon, east africa and Australia
- then worked in Kolkata where he helped found the paper “bengal Herald”
- wrote three volumed work- ‘History, Antiquities, Topography and statistics of Eastern India’
- was cited by SC in Ayodhya judgement
Which European traveller never returned to Europe and settled down in india?
manucci
17th century
Italian
Jean Baptiste Tavernier?
1640
was a jeweller- mentions diamond mines of deccan
Visited India 6 times in the reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
comapred India and Ottoman empire
called varanasi the athens of India, was impresed by Bindu Madhavv temple in varanasi
mentions the houses bbuilt with brick or cut-stone
According to Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang). T/F:
- The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
- As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
- The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.
- F
- T
- T
Which one of the following statements is not correct? (CDS-2018-i)
- Al-Biruni identifies the Sufi doctrine of divine love as self-annihilation with parallel passages from Bhagavad Gita.
- According to Al-Biruni, Sufi theories of Soul were similar to those in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra.
- The Hatha Yogic treatise Amrita Kunda had lasting impact on Sufism.
- Hujwiri’s conversation with the Yogis shows that he was impressed with their theory of the division of the human body.
D
first Jesuit mission to Mughal court?
first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years
T/F:
- We don’t know whether Women also travelled to INdia in ancient and medieval times.
- We have no accounts of travel of women to India in ancient and medieval times.
- F; we know they travelled
- T
T/F: Sanskrit works on astronomy, mathematics and medicine had been translated into Arabic from the tenth century onwards.
F
8th century onwards
“HIndu” origin?
- term derived from an Old persian word, used c.6-5th centuries BCE, to refer to regions west of the river Sindhu.
- Arabs continued the Persian usage and called this region al Hind and its people Hindi
- later the turks referred to the people east of Indus as “HIndu”, their land as Hindustan and their language as HIndavi.
- NOne of these expressions indicated religious identity and religious connotations were developed much later
Which traveller becaeme sanyasi for some time in India?
Mahmud Balkhi in 1620s
Sheikh Ali Hazin?
came to North India in 1740s
was disappointed and even disgusted with India where they expected to receive a red carpet treatment
Creation and circulation of ideas about India in Europe?
writings of European travellers through printing and circulation of their books. for eg. Francois bernier’s accounts one of the firsts to be circulated wisely and painted India in a bad light.
Later after 1750, Indian like Shaikh Itisamuddin and Mirza Abu Talib visited europe and confronted this false image by producing their own version of matters
Who said: “so much is wrug from the peasants that even dry bread is scarcely left to fill their stomachs”
Pelsaert, a Dutch traveller
visited in 1710s-1720s
reported of widespread poverty
King of “beggars and Barbarians”?
this is how Francois Bernier saw rule under Mughal empire
T/F:
- none of the Mughal official documents suggest that the state was the sole owner of land.
- European accounts of Mughal rule describes crown ownership of all land.
- T; For instance, Abu’l Fazl, the sixteenth-century official chronicler of Akbar’s reign, describes the land revenue as “remunerations of sovereignty”, a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection he provided rather than as rent on land that he owned
- T; eg. francois Bernier. It is possible that European travellers regarded such claims as rent because land revenue demands were often very high. However, this was actually not a rent or even a land tax, but a tax on
the crop
idea of oriental despotism was argued by?
Montesquieu
Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. The French philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used
this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which rulers in Asia (the Orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects, who were kept in conditions of subjugation and poverty, arguing that all land belonged to the king and that private property was non-existent.
Asiatic mode of production?
- by karl Marx
- developed Montesquieu’s idea of Oriental despotism
- He argued that in India (and other Asian countries), before colonialism, surplus was appropriated by the state. This led to the emergence of a society that was composed of a large number of autonomous and (internally) egalitarian village communities. The imperial court presided over these village communities, respecting their autonomy as long as the flow of surplus was unimpeded. This was regarded as a stagnant system.
Who described Mughal cities as ‘camp towns’?
Francois Bernier
by which he meant towns that owed their existence, and depended for their survival, on the imperial camp. He believed that these came into existence when the imperial court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out. He
suggested that they did not have viable social and economic foundations but were dependent on imperial patronage.
what were “Mahajans” and “seth” in Mughal times?
Merchants often had strong community or kin ties,
and were organised into their own caste-cumoccupational
bodies. In western India these groups
were called mahajans, and their chief, the sheth.
Manikkavachkar?
9th cent Tamil poet
wrote Tiruvasakam, a book of Shaiva hymns
wrote 8th volume of Tirumurai, key religious text of Tamil Language Shaiva Siddhanta
lived in Madurai
NOT counted among 63 nayanars
“Great” and “Little” traditions?
- terms coined by a sociologist named Robert Redfield in 20th century to descrive cultural practices of peasant societies
- peasants’ ritual and customs were of two types:
- ones that emanated from dominant social catgories like priests and rulers- “Great” practices
- local practices that did not necessarily correspon with those of great tradition. these were referred to as little tradition
- Both these traditions changed with time
characteristic feature of religion in early medieval period- 8th century CE?
- Perhaps the most striking feature of this phase is the increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts.
- continued and even extended worship of the major deities – Vishnu, Shiva and
- the goddess – each of whom was visualised in a variety of forms.
- integration of cults: through two processes:
- disseminating Brahamnical ideas by composition, compilation and reservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning
- Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. eg. form of Jagannath, a form of Vishnus, in Puri is very different from earlier depictions. Similarly, goddesses, often simply in the form of a stone smeared with ochre, were adopted into Puranic traditions by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities. Another example is adoption of tantric practices and Puranic texts that placed central emphasis on Vishnu, shiva instead of Agni, INdra etc.
- This ‘corruption’ of Vedic hinduism also led to conflicts with puritans as well as among supporters of deities.
T/F: Devotional worship had a long history of almost a thousand years before the advent of Bhakti period.
T
saguna and nirguna?
- historians of religion often classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories: saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes).
- The former included traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.
- Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of god.
T/F: early Bhakti movements was led by Nayanars and alvars.
T
around 6th century CE
BHakti tradition: intro?
originated in the seventh-century in Tamil, South India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reached its peak between the 15th and 17th century CE.
- Alvars?
- Nayanars?
About them?
- Vishnu
- shiva
As per the tradition, there were 12 Alwars and 63 Nayanars
Bhakti tradition: attitude towards caste?
Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system
bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable” like Pulaiyars and Panars. evidenced by composition of an Alvar, Tondaradippodi and a Nayanar, Appar
Bhakti tradition: important texts?
- their compositions were as important as the Vedas
- one of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira
Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas. - by 10th century, compositions of 12 Alvars were compiled in an anthology known as Nalayira Divyaprabandham (‘4000 sacred compositions’)
- Chola kings introduced the singing of Tamil hymns in temples under royal patronage, and organised them into a text called Tevaram
- poems of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar form Tevaram, a collection that was compiled and classified in 10th century on the basis of music of songs. tevaram is a collection of first seven volumes of Tirumurai (Saiva Devotional poetry)
- compositions of Nayanars often spoke in opposition to Buddhism and Jainism
- Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana
Bhakti tradition: status of women?
- one of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of women.
- compositions of Andal, only woman Alvar, were widely sung (and continue to be sung to date). Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity.
- Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, one of 3 women nayanar, adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.
- These women renounced their social obligations, but did not join an alternative order or become nuns.
Bhakti tradition: relations with the state?
- While Buddhism and Jainism had been prevalent in this region for several centuries, drawing support from merchant and artisan communities, Bhakti traditions received occasional royal patronage. competitions between different religious traditions for royal patronage
- Chola kings often attempted to claim divine support and proclaim their own power and status by building splendid temples. powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. eg. temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram
- some of the most spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were produced. Clearly, the visions of the Nayanars inspired artists.
- These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples under royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organise them into a text (Tevaram).
- Chola ruler Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple. These were carried in processions during the festivals of these saints
Virashaiva tradition?
- 12th century- new movement in KN- led by a Brahmana, Basavanna, a minster in court of a Kalachuri ruler.
- His followers were known as Virashaivas or Lingayats (weare of Linga)
- we know about them from vachanas composed in Kannada by elders
- worship Shiva in the form of Linga, men usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder
- jangama or wandering monks are revered
- questioned the theory of rebirth; they believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore, they do not practice funerary rites such as cremation, as prescribed in Dharmshastras, instead they bury their dead
- very critical of useless rituals
- challenged the idea of caste and ‘pollution’- made them popular among the marginalised
- also encouraged other practices frowned upon by Dharamshastras like post puverty marriage and widow remarriage
T/F: Bhagvat purana was a product of bhakti tradition.
T
many ideas of Tamil bhakts, esp vaishnavas, were incorporated within sanskritic tradition, culminating in composition of Bhagvat Purana
Bhakti traditions in MH?
- Gnanadeva was the founder of Bhakti movement in MH in 13th century. AKA Sant Dnyaneshwar. he wrote Gnaneshwari, a commentary of Bhagvad Gita
- Namadeva: 16th cent. opposed idol worship and dominance of priests, criticized the caste system.
- Eknath was a prominent Marathi saint and a religious poet of Varkari Sampradaya. He is known as a bridge between his predecessors Dnyaneshwarand Namdev and the later Tukaram and Ramdas.
- Tukaram: contemporary of Shivaji in 17th cent; Abhanga (devotional poetry) and kirtans; devoted to Vitthala; creditedwith creating a background for Maratha nationalism
- women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste.
- This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all people.
- These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth.
- It is regarded as a humanist idea, as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain.
Samarth Ramdas?
● Samarth Ramdas was also known as Sant (saint) Ramdas or Ramdas Swami.
● He was an Indian Marathi Hindu saint, poet, philosopher, writer and spiritual master.
● He was a devotee of Hindu deities Rama and Hanuman. He was previously famous as Narayan.
● He was born at Jamb, which is a village in present-day Jalna district of Maharashtra.
● His literary works include Karunashtakas, Dasbodh, Yuddhakand, Sunderkand, Poorvarambh, Antarbhav, Chaturthman, Aatmaaram, Panchman, Panchsamasi, Manpanchak, Janaswabhawgosavi, etc.
● Ramdas served an inspiration for several Indian thinkers, historians and social reformers from 19th and 20th-century, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Rajwade, Keshav Hedgewar, and Ramchandra Ranade
important leaders of Bhakti movement?
- Namadeva (16th cent) and Ramananda (14th cent) (Maharashtra and Allahabad) – Both of them taught the concept of bhakti to all the four varnas and disregarded the ban on people of different castes cooking together and sharing meals.
- Sankara (8th cent, Kerala) and Ramanuja (11th cent, TN) – The propounders of Advaita (non-duality) and vishishta adwaitha (qualified non-duality) respectively. They believed god to be nirguna parabrahma and satguna parabrahma respectively.
- Vallabhacharya (15th-16th cent) – propounder of shuddha adwaitha or pure non-duality.
- Chaitanya (Bengal) (16th cent) – relied on the use of music, dance and bhajans to get in touch with God. ‘love’ was the watchword of the chaitanya cult.
- Kabir (15th cent) – was a disciple of Ramananda, and was raised by a Muslim weaver. He stood for doing away with all the unnecessary customs and rituals in both religions and bringing union between these religions.
- Guru Nanak (15th cent).
- Nimbarkacharya (12th-13th cent) – gave concept of bhed-abheda i.e. humans are both different and non-different from Isvara. Nimarka sampradaya aka Hamsa sampradaya is one of the four Vaiṣṇava Sampradāyas
Guru Nanak?
- born in Talvandi near Lahore.
- The most famous teachings attributed to Guru Nanak are that there is only one God, and that all human beings can have direct access to God with no need of ritualsor priests.
- His most radical social teachings denounced the caste system and taught that everyone is equal, regardless of caste or gender.
- He introduced the concept of god- that is ‘Vahiguru’, an entity that is shapeless, timeless, omnipresent and invisible. Other names for God in the Sikh faith are Akaal Purkh and Nirankar.
- Guru Granth Sahib, the holiest book of the Sikhs, contains 974 poetic hymns composed by Guru Nanak.
- Guru Nanak Dev, along with his companion Bhai Mardana,travelled far and wide during the 15th and 16th centuries.From Mecca to Haridwar, from Sylhet to Mount Kailash, Guru Nanak visited hundreds of interfaith sites related to Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Jainism throughout his journeys (also called udaasis).
- Later his travels were documented in texts called ‘janamsakhis’.
- These sites are now spread across nine nations as per current geographical divisions — India, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, China (Tibet), Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, and Afghanistan.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis?
- Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
- They advocated renunciation of the world.
- To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realization of oneness with it.
- To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
- These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes. many of them were artisans, like weavers.
T/F: word ‘Bhakti’ is not used in Vedic and Upanishads.
F
last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad uses the word, widely cited as among the earliest mentions of “the love of God”
Madhavacharya?
- He ranks with Sankaracharya and Ramanuja as one of the three principal philosophers of the Vedanta system.
- Madhava is from Kannada region whose preaching prevailed in the 13th Century.
- He preached doctrine of dvaita (dualism) and was the chief proponent of dvaita school of vedanta.
- His philosophy was that the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter is unique in nature.
- According to him, the final aim of man is the direct perception of Hari which leads to Moksha or eternal bliss.
BHakti traditions that thh following were associated with:
- Vallabhacharya
- Nimbarka
- shuddh advait/Vaishnavism in GJ/established pushti sect
- bhed-abheda or chit-achita
Surdas was disciple of ? when? his contri?
Vallabhacharya
16th cent
- popularized Krishna cult in Northern India, devotional songs for Krishna in Brij BHasha
- The book Sur Sagar is traditionally attributed to Surdas. However, many of the poems in the book seem to be written by later poets in Sur’s name. The Sur Sagar in its present form focuses on descriptions of Krishna as a lovable child, written from the gopis’ perspective.
- Sur also composed the Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lahari.
- Sur’s compositions are also found in the Guru Granth Sahib
- Surdas is considered foremost among Ashtachaps, the eight disciples pf Vallbhacharya
Ramananda?
- born at Allahabad in 14th cent, he was the first great Bhakti saint of North India
- He was inspired by Ramanujacharya.
- He was a worshipper of Rama and believed in two great principles, namely as perfect love for god and human brotherhood.
- Later he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Banaras and Agra.
- Ramananda was the first to employ the vernacular medium to spread his ideas.
- He opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society irrespective of caste.
- Kabir was the most famous disciple of Ramananda. others were Raidasa-a cobbler, Sena-a barber, Dhanna-a Jat peasant, Sadhana- a butcher, Narahari-a goldsmith and Pipa- a Rajput prince
Chaitanya?
1485-1535
- Born at Navadwip in Bengal, his original name was Vishwambhar Mishra. He was responsible for the popularity of Vaishnavism in Bengal through his Kirtans.
- He began the Achintayabhedabhedavada School of theology.
- He preached the religion of intense faith in one Supreme Being whom he called Krishna or Hari.
- He believed that a devotee can feel the presence of God through song and dance and love and devotion.
- He adored Krishna and Radha and attempted to spiritualise their lives in Vrindavan. He settled permanently at Puri where he died.
- After his death, his followers systematised his teachings and organised themselves into a sect called Gaudiya Vaishanavism.
Namadeva?
In the 16th Century, Namadeva preached the gospel of love.
He opposed idol worship and the dominance of priests.
He criticized the Caste System.
shankardeva?
- In the late 15th century, Shankaradeva emerged as one of the leading proponents of Vaishnavism in Assam.
- His teachings, often known as the Bhagavati dharma because they were based on the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, focused on absolute surrender to the supreme deity, in this case Vishnu.
- He emphasised the need for naam kirtan, recitation of the names of the lord in sat sanga or congregations of pious devotees.
- He also encouraged the establishment of satra or monasteries for the transmission of spiritual knowledge, and naam ghar or prayer halls. Many of these institutions and practices continue to flourish in the region.
- His major compositions include the Kirtana-ghosha.
Mirabai?
- 15th-16th centuries
- perhaps the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
- According to these, she was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar who was married against her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, RJ
- According to some traditions, her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker. This would indicate her defiance of the norms of caste society
- Mirabai did not attract a sect or group of followers
T/F: During the time Bhakti tradition was gaining ground in South INdia, historians have found sporadic evidence of some changes like the movements of the Alvars and Nayanars
F
historians have not
found evidence of anything resembling the compositions
of the Alvars and Nayanars till the fourteenth century.
Reasons for absence of Bhakti traditions in North India until 14th cent?
- stronghold of Rajput states early on who gave patronage to Brahmins. no attempt was made to challenge them.
- some sects like Naths, Yogis and Siddhas did have some clout but no royal patronage.
- arrival of Delhi sultanate and sufi tradition
what do you mean by ‘zimmi’?
- for people who followed revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, and lived under Muslim rulership.
- They paid a tax called jizya and gained the right to be protected by Muslims.
- In India this status was extended to Hindus as well.
ginan?
one of indigenous literary genres through which Khojas, a branch of Ismailis (a Shia sect) sought to communicate and disseminate ideas derived from Quran.
these were devotional poems in Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi and Gujarati, sung in special ragas during daily prayer meetings
Shah Hamadan mosque?
- The Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar, on the banks of the Jhelum, is often regarded as the “jewel in the crown” of all the existing mosques of Kashmir.
- By Sultan Shah Of Kashmir
- Built in 1395, it is one of the best examples of Kashmiri wooden architecture. Noticeable features: spire and the beautifully carved eaves. It is decorated with papier mache, absence of dome
changes in societies after arrival of Delhi Sultanate: names for communities?
- Sanskrit texts and inscriptions dating between the eighth and fourteenth centuries point out that the term musalman or Muslim was virtually never used
- Instead, people were occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they came. So, the Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka, Tajika were people from Tajikistan and Parashika were people from Persia.
- Sometimes, terms used for other peoples were applied to the new migrants. For instance, the Turks and Afghans were referred to as Shakas and Yavanas (term used for Greeks traditionally)
- A more general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating that they did not observe the norms of caste society and spoke languages that were not derived from Sanskrit. Such terms sometimes had a derogatory connotation, but they rarely denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims
T/F: origin of Sufism was a response and revolt against growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.
T
They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and
scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and sunna
(traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation
through intense devotion and love for God by following
His commands, and by following the example of the
Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect
human being. The sufis thus sought an interpretation
of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal experience.
Sufism in India: intro?
- 10th cent
- core concept: darikh i Duniya/Wahad ul Wahjud meaning ‘Universal brotherhood’
- outwardly rejected religion and emphasized love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings
- Sufis organized in 12 silsilas. 4 prominent ones in india: Chishtis, Suhrawardis, Qadris and Nasqabandi order
ba-shari‘a sufis: Institutional growth of Sufi as organisation?
- By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a welldeveloped movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices.
- khanqah was the centre of social life
- sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or khanqah (gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood) (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian).
- He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa).
- He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between inmates as well as between laypersons and the master.
- Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth century. silsila referred to a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It was through this channel that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees
- Special rituals of initiation were developed in which initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment, and shaved their hair.
- When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or urs. This was because people believed that in death saints were united with
God, and were thus closer to Him than when living. - Thus evolved the cult of the shaikh revered as wali.
Sufism: outside the khanqah?
- Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi ideals.
- Many scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy.
- They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.
- They were known by different names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc.
- Because of their deliberate defiance of the shari‘a they were often referred to as be-shari‘a, in contrast to the ba-shari‘a sufis who complied with it.
Chishtis?
- Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late 12th century, the Chishtis were the most influential because they adapted successfully to the local environment and adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions.
- named after their place of origin, in this case the town of Chisht in central Afghanistan. Most other silsilas were named after the founder’s name
- established in India by Khwaja muinuddin Chishti in 1192, after death of Prithviraj Chauhan
- another prominent saint was Khwaja Qutubuddin bakhtiyar Kaki who organized work in delhi and contemporary ruler Iltutmish was deeply devoted to him.
- Nizamuddin Auliya adopted yogic exercises, so much so that yogis called him ‘sidh’ or perfect
- Baba Farid was one of the first known Punjabi poets, and a saint of Chishti order. He is also one of the 15 Sikh bhagats in sikhism and his selected works are included in Guru Granth Sahib.
- order declined after death of Nasiruddinn Chirag-i-Delhi in 14th cent
Sufism and Yoga?
- Nizamuddin Auliya adopted yogic exercises, so much so that yogis called him ‘sidh’ or perfect
- The Hatha yogic treatise Amritakunda,which had been translated into Arabic andPersian in the thritheenth century, had a lastingeffect on Sufism
- Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlve observed that controlled greathing is theessence of Sufism
- Yogic postures and breath controlbecome an integral part of Chistiya Sufic practice,and controlled breathing was incomporatedfinally as a vital aspect in all the Sufi ordersexcept the Indian Naqshbandiyyas
Chishti khanqah?
- features:
- jama’at khana- a big hall for inmates to live and pray
- Sheikh lived in a small room on the roof
- open kitchen-langar
- futuh- unasked for charity
- practices included:
- bowing before the shaikh
- offering water to visitors
- shaving the heads of initiates
- yogic exercises
- these apractices represent efforts to assimilate local practices
- eg. Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice (c. 14th century) on the banks of the river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur, on the outskirts of what was then the city of Delhi.
- visitors to Shaikh nizamuddin included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and court historian Ziyauddin Barani
Major teachers of Chishti silsila?
- Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi/Chishti- born 1235- Dargah at Ajmer
- Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki- born 1235- dargah at delhi
- Shaikh Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar- born 1265- dargah at Ajodhan (Pakistan)
- Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya- born 1325- dargah at delhi
- Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag -i -delhi - Born 1356- dargah at delhi
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti?
- established Chishti order in India in 1192; most revered Chishti shrine
- popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).
- disciple of Khwaja Usman haruni
- earliest textual references to Khwaja Muinuddin’s dargah date to the fourteenth century. One of the earlies Sufi saint to have settled at ajmer
- It was evidently popular because of the austerity and piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual successors, and the patronage of royal visitors.
- Muhammed Bin tughluq was the first Sultan to visit the shrine, although the construction to house the tomb was funded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of malwa
- Since the shrine was located on the trade route linking Delhi and Gujarat, it attracted a lot of travellers.
- By the sixteenth century the shrine had become very popular; it was visited by Akbar 14 times to seek blessings for new conquests, fulfilment of vows, and the birth of sons. He also had a mosque constructed within the compound of the dargah
Qawwali?
- Also part of ziyarat is the use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy.
- The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through sama‘ (literally, “audition”) or performance of mystical music.
- Sama‘ was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.
- Amir Khusrau ,disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, gave a unique form to the Chishti sama‘ by introducing the qaul (Arabic word meaning “saying”), a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali. This was followed by sufi poetry in Persian, Hindavi or Urdu, and sometimes using words from all of these languages. Qawwals (those who sing these songs) at the shrine of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya always start their recital with the qaul.
al Hujwiri?
In 1039 Abu’l Hasan al Hujwiri, a native of Hujwir near Ghazni in Afghanistan, was forced to cross the Indus as a captive of the invading Turkish army. He settled in Lahore and wrote a book in Persian called the Kashful- Mahjub (Unveiling of the Veiled) to explain the meaning of tasawwuf, and those who practised it, that is, the sufi.
Hujwiri died in 1073 and was buried in Lahore. The grandson of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni constructed a tomb over his grave, and this tomb-shrine became a site of pilgrimage for his devotees, especially on his death anniversary. Even today Hujwiri is revered as Data Ganj Bakhsh or “Giver who bestows treasures” and his mausoleum is called Data Darbar or “Court of the Giver”.
Amir Khusrau was a disciple of whic sufi saint? about Amir Khusrau?
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya
- 1253-1326
- witnessed Delhi sulatns from balban to Muhammad Bin Tughluq
- called as ‘father of qawwali’ and ‘parrot of India’
- introduced Ghazal style to India
- called India ‘paradise on earth’
- mentioned in Siyarul Aulia
- authored large no. of poetic works, in various poetic forms and created a new style of Persian called sabaq-i-Hindi
- took pride in being Indian, showing tendency of Turk ruling class for cultural rapproachment with Indians
- Praised Hindi; Hindi work Khaliq Bari
- was an accomplished musician; invented Sitar and tabla; introduced many Perso-Arabic ragas like aiman, ghora, sanam etc; given the title of “nayak” of both theory and practice of music
Munis al Arwah: who wrote it? what was it about?
by Jahanara, daughter of Shahjahan
biography of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti
Who is being talked about in the following passage:
“In the month of Diwali the entire population of Delhi visits it and stays in tents around the spring tank for days. They take baths to obtain cures from chronic diseases. Muslims and Hindus pay visits in the same spirit. From morning till evening people come and also make themselves busy in merrymaking in the shade of the trees”
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-delhi
language and literature of chishtis?
- adopted in qawwalis
- In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people
- Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib
- A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur. These were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this region during the 17th and 18th centuries.
- It is likely that the sufis of this region were inspired by the pre-existing bhakti tradition of the Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur.
- It is through this medium that Islam gradually gained a place in the villages of the Deccan.
literary tools of Sufis/chishtis?
- long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory eg. the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor.
- Other compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies and shadinama or wedding songs.
- A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur. These were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this region during the 17th and 18th centuries.
- other literary tools were:
- Kashf ul Mahjub
- Malfuzat
- Maktubat
- Tazkiras
Kashf-ul-Mahjub?
by Ali bin Usman Hujwiri
Treatises or manuals dealing with sufi thought and practices
Malfuzat?
- (literally, “uttered”; conversations of sufi saints)
- An early text on malfuzat is the Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad, a collection of conversations of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, compiled by Amir Hasan Sijzi Dehlavi, a noted Persian poet.
- compiled by different sufi silsilas with the permission of the shaikhs; these had obvious didactic purposes
Maktubat?
letters written by sufi masters, addressed to their disciples and associates –
While these tell us about the shaikh’s experience of religious truth that he wanted to share with others, they also reflect the life conditions of the recipients and are responses to their aspirations and difficulties, both spiritual and mundane.
The letters, known as Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani, of the noted seventeenth-century Naqshbandi Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d.1624), whose ideology is often contrasted with the liberal and non-sectarian views of Akbar, are amongst those most frequently discussed by scholars.
Tazkiras?
- biographical accounts of saints
- 14th-century Siyar-ul-Auliya of Mir Khwurd Kirmani was the first sufi tazkira written in India. It dealt principally with the Chishti saints.
- The most famous tazkira is the Akhbar-ul-Akhyar of Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlavi (d. 1642)
- Many details are often implausible, full of elements of the fantastic
Nasqabandi order?
- founded by Bahibillah
- followers were very orthodox comapred to all other orders
- popularized in India by Babur who was deeply devoted to Naqshabandiya leader Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar
- one of the disciples of Khwaja was shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Haryana) who opposed all those practices and beliefs of Akbar and demanded re-imposition of Jizyah. shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was known as Mujaddid or reformer
- later he was imprisoned by Jahangir for claiming a status beyong that of prophet
Qadri order?
- established by Niyammad ulla Qadiri
- introduced in India ovr babar period
- Dara Shikoh was a follower of this order
- lost its patronage during Aurangzeb’s rule
- a famous saint: Mian Mir
- Mian centres: GJ and MP
Suhrawardi order?
- entered iNdia at the same time as chishtis
- confined to PJ and multan
- established and popularised in India by Bahauddin Zakariya. He was called ‘Leader of Islam’ by Iltutmish
- most well known saints: Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid ud din Nagori
- a treatise called Hamat, composed by Shaikh Fakhruddin Ibrahim Iraqi, is a cmmentary on the ‘unity of Being’. he was highly respected by Alauddin khilji and Muhammed bin Tughluq
- unlike Chishtis, they didn’t believe in living life in poverty. They accepted servics of state and held important posts mainly under Iltutmish
Other smaller sufi silsilas in India?
- Firdausia
- in Bihar and Bengal
- Kubrawiya
- by Syed Hamadani
- in Kashmir
- Shettari
- Shah Shettari
- UP and Parts of Deccan
T/F: sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites
T
A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power. However, this was by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political power.
Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts (auqaf ) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).
‘sultan-ul-mashaikh’ title was used for?
Nizamuddin Auliya
Sufis and state relation?
- A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power.
- However, this was by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political power.
- The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites.
- The Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts (auqaf ) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).. These land grants could be passed on therey giving an economic base
- Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind. Rather than accumulate donations, they preferred to use these fully on immediate requirements.
- All this enhanced the moral authority of the shaikhs
- Kings did not simply need to demonstrate their association with sufis; they also required legitimation from them
- Other sufis such as the Suhrawardi under the Delhi Sultans and the Naqshbandi under the Mughals were also associated with the state. However, the modes of their association were not the same as those of the Chishtis. In some cases, sufis accepted courtly offices.
- However, there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. To assert their authority, both expected that certain rituals be performed such as prostration and kissing of the feet. sometimes, gifts were also rejected by Sufi saints like Nizamuddin Auliya
- dargah of Shaikh Salim Chishti (a direct descendant of Baba Farid) constructed in Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s capital, symbolised the bond between the Chishtis and the Mughal state.
Kabir compositions?
Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions.
- The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh;
- the Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan,
- other famous writings include ‘Sakhi Granth’, ‘Anurag Sagar’
- many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib
who wrote in ulatbansi?
Kabir
ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted. These hint at the difficulties of capturing the nature of the Ultimate Reality in words: expressions such as “the lotus which blooms without flower” or the “fire raging in the ocean” convey a sense of Kabir’s mystical experiences
Saint Kabir?
- Probably lived in the 15th-16th centuries.
- We get to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers.
- Some of these were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani, and Bijak.
- Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, rejection of the major religious traditions and caste systems. He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was through bhakti or devotion.
- The language of his poetry was simple which could even be understood by ordinary people.
- He sometimes used cryptic language, which was difficult to follow.
- He drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims.
- Ramananda is attributed as his teacher. However, the verses attributed to Kabir use the words guru and satguru, but do not mention the name of any specific preceptor
sources of teachings of Kabir?
- he described the Ultimate Reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir, derived from Islam and Sufism.
- He also used terms drawn from Vedantic traditions, alakh (the unseen), nirakar (formless), Brahman, Atman, etc
- Other terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or shunya (emptiness) were drawn from yogic traditions
T/F: baba Guru nanak Dev advocated a form of saguna bhakti.
F
For Baba Guru Nanak, the Absolute or “rab” had no gender or form
‘shabad’ is associated with?
Guru nanak dev
He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name, expressing his ideas through hymns called “shabad ” in Punjabi
Adi granth Sahib: origin?
- The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan , compiled Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns along with those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (also known as Raidas) and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib .
- These hymns, called “gurbani”, are composed in various languages.
- In the late seventeenth century the tenth preceptor, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib.
The Sufi saint who was supposed to be the greatest musician of the age was
A) Mansur Din Hallaj
B) Al-Gajjali
C) Pir Bodhan
D) Rabia
C
Sufi saint, Pir Bodhan, is supposed to have been one of the great musicians of the age.
Rabia was one of the early Sufi; She was a woman mystic who lived around 8th cent.
Mansur bin Hallaj was another early Sufi who lived around 10th cent; was executed for heresy
Who wrote Haqaiq e Hindi?
Abdul Belgrami
was an eminent Sufi
an example of creations by Sufi saints in vernacular language
To whom did Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya bestow the title of ‘Ain-i-Hind’ (Mirror of India)?
Sheikh Sirajuddin Usmani
Who among the following Sufi saints witnessed the rule of Seven Sultans of Delhi?
A) Shekh Ahmad Sirhindi
B) Shekh Nizamuddin Auliya
C) Baba Fareed
D) Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti
B
title Mehboob-i-Ilahi was given to?
Nizamuddin Auliya
Who among the following Sufis used to wear ladies dress?
A) Sheikh Moosa
B) Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagauri
C) Shah Daula Dariyai
D) Shah Muhammad Ghaus
A
Which Chisti Saint’s verses are quoted in the ‘Adigranth’ of the Sikhas?
A) Moinuddin Chisti
B) Bakhtiyar Kaki
C) Fariduddin
D) Nizamuddin Auliya
C
“Let no man ask a man’s sect or caste”. This statement has been given by?
Ramananda
Among the following, who was not a proponent of Bhakti cult?
A) Nagarjuna
B) Tukaram
C) Tyagaraja
D) Vallabhacharya
Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna (c. 150 - c. 250 CE) is widely considered one of the most important Mahayana philosophers. Rest three are Bhakti Cult.
chronological order of Ten Sikh gurus?
- Guru Nanak dev- 1469 to 1539
- Guru ANgad Dev- 1539 to 1552
- Guru amardas Sahib- 1552 to 1574
- Guru ram Das- 1574 to 1581
- Guru Arjan Dev- 1581 to 1606
- Guru har Govind Sahib- 1606 to 1644
- Guru Har rai sahib- 1644 to 1661
- Guru Har Krishan Sabha- 1661 to 1664
- Guru Teg Bahadur Singh 1664 to 1675
- Guru Gobind Singh- 1675to 1708
T/F: Guru Nanak dev was contemporary of Akbar.
F
of Babar
T/F: Guru Nank Dev was largely silent on status of women and rejected the path of renunciation.
F
He emphasized the equality of women and rejected the path of renunciation and he rejected the authority of the Vedas.
Guru Angad Dev/
Guru from 1539 to 1552
Guru Angad Dev, second of the 10 gurus, invented and introduced the Gurmukhi (written form of Punjabi) script.
He compiled the writings of Nanak Dev in Guru Granth Sahib in Gurmukhi Script.
Popularized and expanded the institution of Guru ka Langar which was started by Guru Nanak Dev.
Guru Amardas Sahib?
Guru from 1552 to 1574
Guru Amardas introduced the Anand Karaj marriage ceremony for the Sikhs, replacing the Hindu form.
He established Manji & Piri system of religious missions for men and women respectively.
He also completely abolished amongst the Sikhs, the custom of Sati and purdah system.
He was the contemporary of Mughal emperor - Akbar.
Guru ram das?
Guru from 1574 to 1581
Guru Ram Das, fourth of the 10 gurus, founded the city of Amritsar.
He started the construction of the famous Golden Temple at Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs.
He requested the Muslim Sufi, Mian Mir to lay the cornerstone of the Harmandir Sahib.
Guru Arjan dev?
Guru from 1581 to 1606
He compiled the Adi Granth, the scriptures of the Sikhs.
He completed construction of Sri Darbar Sahib also known as Golden Temple in Amritsar.
He founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib near Goindwal Sahib.
He became the first great martyr in Sikh history when Emperor Jahangir ordered his execution. Thus, he was hailed as Shaheedan-de-Sartaj (The crown of martyrs).
Guru Har Gobind Sahib?
Guru from 1606 to 1644
He was the son of Guru Arjan Dev and was known as a “soldier saint”.
He organised a small army and became the first Guru to take up arms to defend the faith.
He waged wars against Mughal rulers Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
Guru Har Rai Sahib?
Guru from 1644 to 1661
Though he was a man of peace, he never disbanded the armed sikh warriors who were earlier maintained by Guru Har Gobind.
He gave shelter to Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Mughal Ruler Shah Jahan, who was later persecuted by Aurangazeb.
He cautiously avoided conflict with Emperor Aurangzeb and devoted his efforts to missionary work.
Guru Har Krishan Sahib?
Guru from 1661 to 1664
Guru Har Krishan was the youngest of the Gurus. He was installed as Guru at the age of five. Thus called Bala Pir.
He was contemporary of Aurangazeb and summoned to Delhi by him under framed charges of anti-Islamic blasphemy.
Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib?
Guru from 1665 to 1675
He established the town of Anandpur.
He opposed the forced conversion of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits by Mughal ruler Aurangazeb and he was consequently persecuted for this in 1675. Gurdwara SisGanj Sahib in Chandni Chowk now stands on his execution site.
He was son Guru HarGobind, the 6th Guru
Who among the following considered Vedas as the revealed book?
- Sheikh Abdul Haqq
- Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya
- Mirza Mazliar Jan-i-Jahan (Naqshbandiya)
- Sheikh Kalimuddin (Chistiya)
- Dara Shikoh
3 and 5
T/F:
- Guru Nanak was interested in all the major forms of contemporary religious beliefs and practices whether ‘Hindu’ or ‘Muslim’.
- He considered ritual reading of scriptures as waste of time
- During the last fifteen years of his life Guru Nanak settled at Kiratpur.
- F; denounced the Hindu customs and religious beliefs. His religion. Sikhism, was independent in even sense and did not have its roots in am other religion be it Hinduism or Mohammedan
- T
- F; at Kartarpur
Dadu Dayal?
Nirguna saint
founded the Brahma Sampradaya or Parabrahma Sampradaya
Ramanuja?
1060- 1120 AD
- earliest exponent of the Bhakti movement was Ramanuja who was appointed the successor of his teacher Yamunamuni.
- He travelled all over India and ultimately settled down at Srirangam.
- He established Vaishnavism on a sound foundation.
- He founded Visistadvaita Siddhanta or qualified monism and according to him, the way to salvation lies through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti.
- He wrote Sribasya and Gitabhasya.
Nimbarka?
- leader of the Bhakti movement
- a younger contemporary of Ramanuja
- worshipper of Krishna and Radha.
- He founded Dvaitadvaita or dualistic monism.
- He wrote Vedanta Parijata-saurabha, a commentary on Brahmasutras.
- He settled in Mathura.
Vallabhacharya ?
1480-1530 AD
- Born in Varanasi
- he propounded Suddhadvaita Vedanta (Pure non-dualism) and philosophy called Pustimarga (the path of grace)
- He founded a school called Rudra Sampradaya.
- He identified Brahman with Sri Krishna, characterised by Sat (Being), Cit (consciousness) and Ananda (bliss).
- According to him, salvation is through Sneha (deep rooted love for God).
- He was the author of a number of scholarly works in Sanskrit and Brajbhasa, the important being Subodhini and Siddhant Rahasya.
discovery of Hampi by?
in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie, the first Surveyor General of India
Vijaynagara empire: foundation:
- by?
- when?
- people?
- contemporaries?
- by Harihara and bukka, Brothers, served under Vira Ballala III, Hoysala king
- in 1336
- included people of different languages and religions
- contemporaries: Sultans of deccan (called ashvapati by Vijaynagara traditions) and gajapti rulers of Odisha
another name of vijaynagara empire?
Karnataka samrajyamu
brihadeshvara temple?
- at Thanjavur, on the banks of Cauvery
- aka Raja Rajeswara temple aka Dakshina Meru
- dedicated to Shiva
- one of the best examples of the fully relalised Dravidian style of temple architecture built by Chola emperor Raja Raja Chola I ( 985-1014 AD) between 1003 AD and 1010 AD.
- several shrines added to the temple by most of the following rulers such as the Pandyas, the Vijayanagara rulers and the Marathas, too.
- consists of a pyramidal spire and is adorned with sculptures and paintings inside as well as outside.
- UNWHS
- also a part of “Great Living Chola Temples” along with the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
- one of the tallest temples in India, still remains an engineering mystery as it is completely made of granite and archaeologists still don’t know how the builders got such huge pieces of granite for construction at this height. the first all-granite temple in the world.
- apex structure on top of the temple is believed to be carved out of a single stone carving
- so designed that the Vimana does not cast a shadow at noon during any part of the year.
- Recently, the consecration (Kumbhabhishekam) ceremony was held at the Brihadisvara Temple after 23 years after the Madras HC settled an old argument over language of ritual. The court allowed the consecration to be performed in both Tamil and Sanskrit. It argued that there is nothing either in the Agamas (canonical texts) or in any other religious script to prohibit the chanting of Tamil mantras in the temples.
- It has seen only five kumbhabhishekam ceremonies so far, most recently in 1997. As per traditions it is done once in 12 years
brihadeshvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram?
- Completed in 1035 AD by Rajendra Chola I, son of raja raja Chola I as a part of his new capital
- similar in design, and has a similar name, as the older 11th cent, Brihadeeswarar Temple about 70 km to the southwest in Thanjavur
- dedicated to shiva but also depicts other deities like Vishnu, Durga, Surya etc.
- part of UN-WHS- Great Living Chola temples
- near Kollidam river, within cauvery river delta
- There is a shrine for Shaiva saint and scholar Chandeshvara (one of the sixty-three Nayanars).
- The bronze sculptures of Bhogasakti and Subrahmanya are masterpieces of Chola metal icons.
Airavatesvara Temple?
- built by the Chola king Rajaraja II (1144-1173 CE)
- in Thanjavur
- dedicated to Shiva. It also displays Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions as well as Nayannars
- third temple of UN-WHS Great Living Chola Temples
- much smaller in size as compared to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
- The temple consists of a sanctum without a circumambulatory path and axial mandapas.
- The front mandapa is unique as it was conceptualized as a chariot with wheels.
- It has two sun dials namely morning and evening sun dials which can be seen as wheels of the chariot.
- The agra mandapa has “singing steps” that produce music as one walks on them
Chennakeshava temple?
- located in Belur near Hassan, KN
- built in 1250 during Hoysala king Vira Someshwara’s rule. hoysalas ruled in KN betn 1100 and 1320 AD
- one of the three best examples of Hoysala architecture along with Belur and Halebid temples; but it isn’t as much damaged as the other two
- dedicated to Vishnu
- on the banks of Kaveri
- 16 star pointed plan with a well designed shikhara bt a missing kalasa. tower starts with a topping roof which is also 16-star pointed and is followed by four tiers of square roofs, some of which still have their decorative kalasa
- This is a ekakuta plan (single shrine with a tower) with the temple raised on a platform called jagati.
kudirai chettis?
local communities of horse merchants in Vijaynagara empire
dynasties in Vijaynagara empire?
- Sangama dynasty- ruled till 1485- founded by Harihara and Bukka- greatest ruler Devaraya II
- Saluvas- military commanders- till 1503- founded by Saluva Narsimha
- Tuluva dynasty- till 1542- founded by Vir Narsimha
- Aravidu dynasty- till 1600s
Nagalapuram?
a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram was founded by Krishnadeva Raya, after his mother
Battle of Talikota?
- In 1565 Aliya Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
- The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara.
- The city was totally abandoned within a few years. Now the focus of the empire shifted to the east where the Aravidu dynasty ruled from Penukonda and later from Chandragiri (near Tirupati)
Who was ‘establisher of Yavana kingdom’?
Krishnadeva Raya
although word ‘Yavana’ is Sanskrit for Greeks and other people who entered subcontinent from NW
amara nayaka system?
- a major political innovation of Vijaynagara empire.
- may have been derived from iqta system of Delhi sultanate
- amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya.
- They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area.
- They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force. Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
- amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.
- Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.
- However, during the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms. This hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.
Vijaynagara kingdom: water resources?
- Tungabhadra river
- In almost all cases embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes
- elaborate arrangements had to be made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city. eg.
- water from Kamalapuram tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”
- Hiriya canal: built by Sangame rayas, drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core”
Vijaynagara kingdom: fortification?
- seven lines of fort described by abdur Razzaq.
- These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. “ between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses serviced by elaborate network of canals”. This was done to prepare for any possible siege by invading armies.
- The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the royal centre, within which each set of major buildings was surrounded by its own high walls.
- elabortae gateways to enter the forts. arch on these gateways as well as he dome over the gate are regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans, referred as INdo-Islamic architecture
- No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction
Vijaynagara empire: urban architecture?
- evidence of rich traders’ dwellings
- other ordinary houses were thatched but still well built and arranged
- also the Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques located here have distinctive functions, yet their architecture resembles that of the mandapas found in the temples of Hampi
- entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults
“Mahanavami Dibba” is associated with? features?
Vijaynagara empire, described by Domingo Paes
Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings
might have been the house of rituals on Mahanavami, Dusshera etc.
T/F: no evidence of animal sacrifice in rituals of Vijaynagara empire.
F
ceremonies on occasions like Mahanavami, dusshera etc. included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings
Lotus mahal?
*
Hazara Rama temple?
literally “thousand Ram” and refers to the multitude of relics depicting the reigning deity of the temple.
once the private temple of the kings and the royal family of Vijayanagara.
panels depicting the story of the epic Ramayana.
Harihara I?
In 1336 A.D. Harihara I became the ruler of Sangama Dynasty
He captured Mysore and Madurai.
In 1356 A.D. Bukka-I succeeded him
Krishnadeva Raya?
- 1509-1529 AD
- Tuluva dynasty
- According to Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller “Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and perfect king there could possibly be”. kniwn as Andhra Bhoja
- He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D. In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
- His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south
- He developed the naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
- He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
- Ashtadiggajas: A group of eight scholars adorned his court
- Literary contributions of Krishnadeva Raya
- He wrote Amuktamalyadam, a literary work in Telugu language which is considered one of the Panchakavyas of Telugu literature. He was conferred with the title Andhrabhoja for this.
He wrote other important or notable literature such as Madalasa Charitra, Ushaparinayam, Jambavati Kalyanam, Sakalakathasaram in Telugu language.
- He was responsible for developing and nurturing Carnatic musical tradition by providing shelter to musicians such as VyasaRaya, who was the propagator of Haridasa movement in Karnataka. He encouraged classical dance forms such like Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi, which reached its height during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya.
- He built the Hazara Rama temple and the Vittalaswami temple. He also founded a new city called Nagalapuram.
Ashtadiggajas?
A group of eight scholars adorned his court and they were:
- Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram and harikatha saram, both in Telugu, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
- Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
- Madayagari Mallana
- Dhurjati
- Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
- Pingali Surana
- Ramaraja Bhushana
- Tenali Ramakrishna
T/F: Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the goddess Pampa devi.
F
on behalf of God Virupaksha
All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.
“Hindu Suratrana”?
Vijaynagara rulers indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu Suratrana”. This was a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan, meaning king, so it literally meant Hindu Sultan
Vijaynagara empire: architecture: new features?
structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great
Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex
Virupaksha temple?
- in Hampi, Bellary, KN
- It is part of the Group of Monuments at Hampi, designated as a UNESCO WHS
- temple was built by Lakkan Dandesha, a nayaka (chieftain) under the ruler Deva Raya II also known as Prauda Deva Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire
- It is intact among the surrounding ruins and is still used in worship
- Virupaksha-Pampa sanctuary existed well before the Vijayanagara empire. What started as a small shrine grew into a large complex under the Vijayanagara rulers
- additions made to the temple in the late Chalukyan and Hoysala periods, though most of the temple buildings are attributed to the Vijayanagar period.
- A narrow channel of the Tungabhadra River flows along the temple’s terrace and then descends to the temple-kitchen and out through the outer court.
- One of the most striking features of this temple is the usage of mathematical concepts to build and decorate it. The temple has repeated patterns that demonstrate the concept of Fractals. The main shape of the temple is triangular.
- The most ornate of all structures in the temple, the central pillared hall is believed to be Krishnadeva Raya’s addition to this temple as was also the eastern Gopuram
Vitthala temple?
- temple is located in the north eastern part of Hampi, near the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
- built during the reign of King Devaraya II though several portions of the temple were expanded and enhanced during the reign of Krishnadevaraya
- principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in MH
- unique shrine designed as a stone- chariot. A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the chariot streets that extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line.
- These streets were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions in which merchants set up their shops
- fascinating musical pillars aka Saregama pillars. Every main pillar is surrounded by 7 minor pillars. These 7 pillars emit 7 different musical notes from the representative musical instruments. The cluster of musical pillars was carved out of huge single pieces of resonant stone.
Vijayanagar Empire: administration?
- king was head of all powers in the state.
- Council of Ministers – to assist the King
- Empire was divided into six Provinces.
- Naik – a Governor who administered each Province.
- The provinces were divided into Mandalams (districts), headed by Mandaleshwara or nayakas, and the districts were further divided into smaller units namely Nadus, then into Sthalas and then finally into Gramas (villages).
- village was administered by hereditary officers like accountants, watchmen, the weights men, and officers in charge of forced labour.
- land revenue was 1/6th of produce
- gold coin: Varaha
- Port; cannanore on Malabar coast
- Mahanayakacharya: He is an officer and the contact point between the villages and the Central administration.
Vijayanagar Empire: social structure?
- Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the empire. They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in music and fine arts.
- Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers.
- The society was systemized.
- Child marriage, polygamy and sati were prevalent.
- The kings allowed freedom of religion.
sayana:
- who was he?
- when?
- was a Sanskrit Mimamsa scholar, An influential commentator on the Vedas
- from the Vijayanagara Empire; flourished under King Bukka Raya I and his successor Harihara II
T/F: sangam dynasty was the only Vaishnavite dynasty among the four dynasties of Vijaynagara empire.
F
sangam was saivite, others were Vaishnavite (mainly followers of Ramanujam)
Temple Building Style of Vijayanagar Empire?
Vesara style of temple architecture → Tall gopurams with large kalyanmandapam along with pillars
Example → Vradhraja & Ekam Parantha temple @ Kanchipuram
Arrange the following rulers of Kashmir in a chronological order:
- Avantivarman
- Didda
- Harsha
- jayasingha
1234
Utpala dynasty founded by Avantivarman followed the Kakrotas
Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Kabul on her mother’s side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century.
What do these terms mean and their alternatives:
- Muzarian?
- Pahi-kashta?
- khud kashta?
- jins-i-kamil?
- muqaddam?
- miras?
- kharbandi?
- means peasants in Mughal rule; Raiyat, asami
- pahi-kashta: residents of the village in which they held their lands
- khud-kashta: non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated lands elsewhere on a contractual basis
- literally, perfect crops, usually cash crops like cotton and sugarcane and oilseeds
- village headman; aka mandal
- artisans were often paid in terms of land holdings on which they were granted hereditary rights, these were called miras or watan
- scrubland
The spread of tobacco in North India?
This plant, which arrived first in the Deccan, spread to northern India in the early years of the seventeenth century.
The Ain does not mention tobacco in the lists of crops in northern India.
Akbar and his nobles came across tobacco for the first time in 1604. At this time smoking tobacco (in hookahs or chillums) seems to have caught on in a big way.
Jahangir was so concerned about its addiction that he banned it. This was totally ineffective because by the end of the seventeenth century, tobacco had become a major article of consumption, cultivation and trade all over India.
crops introuced in India in 17th century?
- Maize: introduced into India vai africa and spain
- vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies
- pineapple and papaya
T/F: There are evidences of jati panchayats in addition to village panchayats in Mughal villages.
T
jajmani system?
a variant of payment to artisans wherein artisans and individual peasant households entered into a mutually negotiated system of remuneration
zamindars in Bengal who remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters, even goldsmiths for their work by paying them “a small daily allowance and diet money”. This later came to be described as the jajmani system, though the term was not in vogue in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
prevalence of cash economy in Mughal times?
- a cash nexus had already developed through trade between villages and towns.
- In the Mughal heartland too, revenue was assessed and collected in cash.
- Artisans producing for the export market (for example, weavers) received their advances or wages in cash, as did producers of commercial products like cotton, silk or indigo.
- marvelled at by jean Tavernier
women in agrarian society in 17th cent?
- important partner in economy: both in field as well as artist shops
- biases related to women’s biological functions did continue eg. menstruation
- high mortality rates among women – owing to malnutrition, frequent pregnancies, death during childbirth – often meant a shortage of wives. This led to the emergence of social customs in peasant and artisan communities that were distinct from those prevalent among elite groups. eg. bride price instead of dowries, Remarriage was considered legitimate both among divorced and widowed women
- importance attached to women as a reproductive force also meant that the fear of losing control over them was great. women were kept under strict control by the male members of the family and the community
- Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property.
- women, including widows, actively participated in the rural land market as sellers of property inherited by them. Women zamindars were known in eighteenth-century Bengal
What do the following terms in Mughal agrarian system signify?
- milkiyat?
- qilachas?
- sanad?
- property held by zamindars
- military fortresses of zamindars
- imperial order
4.
zamindars-peasantry relation in Mughal 17th cent?
- Zamindars very powerful with their own military, fortresses ad huge milkilyats
- Zamindars spearheaded the colonisation of agricultural land, and helped in settling cultivators by providing them with the means of cultivation, including cash loans
- zamindars often established markets (haats) to which peasants also came to sell their produce
- Although there can be little doubt that zamindars were an exploitative class, their relationship with the peasantry had an element of reciprocity, paternalism and patronage. Evidence:
- bhakti saints, who eloquently condemned caste-based and other forms of oppression did not portray the zamindars or moneylenders as exploiters or oppressors. Usually it was the revenue official of state who was shown as oppressor
- in a large number of agrarian uprisings which erupted in north India in the seventeenth century, zamindars often received the support of the peasantry in their struggle against the state
Land revenue system in Mughal empire?
- diwan: responsible for supervising the fiscal system of the empire
- land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages
- Assessment: jama was the amount assessed
- Actual collection: hasil
- revenue collector: amil-guzar, strived to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be kept open.
- While fixing revenue, the attempt of the state was to maximise its claims. The scope of actually realising these claims was, however, sometimes thwarted by local conditions
- Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province. Yet not all areas were measured successfully eg. forests
- Akbar classified the lands and fixed a different revenue to be paid by each.- Polaj, Parauti, Chahchar and Banjar
Land revenue system in Mughal empire: different systems of land assessment and collection?
revenue collector: amil-guzar, strived to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be kept open.
- kankut: literally ‘grain-estimate’ , crops cut and estimated in three lots, the good, the middling, and the inferior
- batai aka bhaoli: crops are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the presence of the parties. But in this case several intelligent inspectors are required
- khet-batai: they divide the fields after they are sown
- lang batai: after cutting the grain, they form it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes his share home and turns it to profit.
Land revenue system in Mughal empire: classification of land by Akbar?
Akbar classified the lands and fixed a different revenue to be paid by each.- Polaj, Parauti, Chahchar and Banjar
- Polaj is land which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never allowed to lie fallow.
- Parauti is land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength.
- Chachar is land that has lain fallow for three or four years.
- Banjar is land uncultivated for five years and more.
- Of the first two kinds of land, there are three classes, good, middling, and bad. They add together the produce of each sort, and the third of this represents the medium produce, one-third part of which is exacted as the Royal dues.
official responsible for ensuring that imperial regulations were carried out in the provinces of Mughal empire?
Amin
which crops were cultivated in Mughal times?
- large variety of crops such as barley, gram, pulses, rice, and wheat were cultivated.
- Commercial crops such as indigo, oil-seeds, cotton and sugarcane were also cultivated.
- During the seventeenth century two new crops, viz., tobacco and maize were added.
- India was able to export food items like rice and sugar to the neighbouring countries.
Language and literature contribution in Mughal times?
- Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
- Many historical works were written during this period. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
- The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his supervision.
- Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets
- Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for its style
- He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah
- Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah
- Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
- His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language
- The most influential Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
Ain i Akbari?
- by Abu’l Fazl
- completed in 1598, the forty-second regnal year of Akbar
- Ain was part of a larger project of history writing commissioned by Akbar. This history, known as the Akbar Nama, comprised three books. The first two provided a historical narrative
- The Ain-i Akbari, the third book, was organised as a compendium of imperial regulations and a gazetteer of the empire.
- Ain gives detailed accounts of the organisation of the court, administration and army, the sources of revenue and the physical layout of the provinces of Akbar’s empire and the literary, cultural and religious traditions of the people
- Ain is made up of five books (daftars)
- first book, manzil-abadi: regarding imperial HH and its maintenance
- second, sipah-abadi: covers military and civil admin and establishment of servants. It also includes short biographical sketches of mansabdars, learned men, poets and artists
- third, mulk-abadi: deals with fiscal side and info on revenue rates and account of the 12 provinces. mulk-abadi gives a fascinating, detailed and highly complex view of agrarian society in northern India.
- fourth and fifth books (daftars) deal with the religious, literary and cultural traditions of the people of India and also contain a collection of Akbar’s “auspicious sayings”
translation of Ain-i-akbari?
by a number of scholars
Henry Blochmann edited it and the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta (present-day Kolkata), published it in the first volume of Bibliotheca Indica series.
The other two volumes were translated by H.S. Jarrett
India at the end of ancient era?
- Harsha’s Pushyabutis dynasty centered in Thanesar
- Harsha died in 647 AD
- after death of Harsha, for abt 5 centuries, 7th to 12th, states like Kashmir, Gandhara, Sindh, GJ, Kanauj, Ajmer, Malwa, Bengal and Assam kept fighting among themselves for control over whole of Northern India. While Kashmir was dominant in early 8th century, later Palas of Bengal emerged powerfully and finally Pratiharas, by 900AD, emerged as the most powerful rulers of northern India
- Gurjaras (Pratiharas) in southern RJ
- Valabhi in GJ
- Kalachuris in Central India and MH, centered at Mahishmati (today’s Maheshwar, MP)
- Chalukyas in MH and KN
- Gauda in east
- return of Pallavas and Pandyas in south India
- Chach dynasty ruled over Sindh by 700AD