WM Flashcards
Cowan, 2014
What is working memory?
Small amount of information held in mind/used in execution of cognitive tasks
“Small amount of information held in mind/used in execution of cognitive tasks”
Who gave this definition of WM?
Cowan, 2014
Information processing approach was developed in 1950s as an alternative to
Behaviourism
Information processing approach is based on
A computer metaphor
3 assumptions of the information processing approach
- Info moves through stores
- Info moves serially
- Cog. system has limited capacity
Information processing approach
Our cog system has a limited capacity, therefore tasks…
Can be placed on a continuum relative to the capacity they require
Who devised one of the first information processing models?
Atkinson + Shiffrin
Current model of Information Processing
What 3 things feed into WM
Attention
Executive control
Retrieval
Info processing approach
Cog. development involves changes in
Hardware
Software
4 Processing Limitations (Brainerd, 1983)
Encoding
Retrieval
Storage
Metacognitive
How might encoding limitations affect working memory? (2)
Lack of attention
Lack of encoding strategies
Ability to focus on part of something
Selective attention
Miller + Seier, 1994
Young children who need to remember locations of animals make task more difficult….
By also looking at location of task-irrelevant household items
Flavell et al., 1966
Initially, children under 10 were thought not
To use rehearsal
Ornstein et al., 1975
Originally, children <10 were thought not to rehearse. However, it is
Now recognised children DO rehearse, just in a less effective way
Hulme et al., 1984
With age, children can read or say…. and….
Say words at faster rate
Memory span increases
Further evidence that rehearsal helps encoding comes from
Bilingual studies
Ellis + Hennelly, 1980
Why do Welsh speaking children have better memory for numbers in English?
English number can be articulated quicker
Ellis + Hennelly, 1980
Welsh children have better memory for English numbers as they can be articulated quicker. This is evidence of
Rehearsal helping encoding
3 Encoding strategies
Rehearsal
Organistion
Elaboration
Moely., 1969
How do children <10 use organisation strategies?
They don’t
No categorisation of items into easily remembered groups
Children can remember PAIRS of words better if
There is an association between them
Children remember pairs of words better if there is an association. Young children (2)
- Seem to be unable to make associations
2. If they do, they’re less effective
Children may know the retrieval strategy needed, but fail to retrieve it. This may reflect
Lack of knowledge
Experience using retrieval strategies
Kreutzer et al., 1975
While 10 year olds can name at least one retrieval strategy….
Only 1/2 of 5 year olds can
Kreutzer et al., 1975
At what age can children begin to use retrieval strategies?
10
Dempster, 1984
Storage capacity
Increases with age
What else can affect storage, other than age?
Experience
Chi (1978)
Adults vs 10 year old chess experts.
Findings:
Children had BETTER memory for chess board positions
Chi (1978)
Children had better memory for chess board positions than adults. This suggests
Experience can affect storage ability
Span tests measure
STM
A more sensitive test of WM is when
Information is transformed + stored
Alloway, Gathercole + Pickering, 2006
WM span is usually
2 items less than a child’s STM span
Flavell et al., 1970
Children overestimate…
Their own memory
In very young children, why might the use of strategies impair recall?
Too little WM capacity to use strategies too
Ringel + Springer, 1980 state that children don’t realise…
How useful strategies are
More knowledge sometimes produces negative effects. For example (3)
- Falsely “recalling” details
- Overgeneralising facts to situations
- Adding facts that fit in with prev knowledge but don’t apply to specific situation
Working memory supports other developing skills…(3)
- Language
- Academic skills
- General school readiness
Gathercole + Baddeley (1983)
3-4 year olds with BETTER WM learned…
Novel labels faster than children with poor WM
WM is important to vocabulary acquisition and
Language comprehension
WM skills at age 4 predict…
Reading and writing at age 6
WM at age 5 was a better predictor of literacy than…
IQ
_______ WM is most strongly associated with maths performance in young children
Visuospatial
______ WM is most strongly associated with maths performance in older children
Verbal
Verbal WM is most strongly associated with maths performance in….
Older children
Different types of WM are used depending on…
Format of the problem
Why are children with poor WM unable to meet the learning demands of structured activities?
WM becomes overloaded
Crucial info needed to guide task is lost
How can teachers help children with WM deficits? (2)
- Auditory support (1 by 1)
2. Visual support (checklists etc)
