W5 notes Flashcards
discontinuity approach
The discontinuity approach views development as a staircase to be climbed
The behaviour on one step is qualitatively different from that on the step that preceded it and the change from one step to the other is abrupt
universal approach vs ecological approach
The universal approach sees development as common to all people, whereas the ecological approach emphasizes the influences of environment and culture on development
pruning
Pruning: the process in which unused or unnecessary neurons and synapses are eliminated in order to enable more efficient neural processing
What does it mean to have neurons and synapses that are working well?
Nervous system develops according to a “use it or lose it” principle, which emphasizes the important role of experience in wiring the brain
Children who are raised in a stimulating and enriched environment, with many things to explore, are likely to have the best outcomes
myelination
the growth in white matter that begins around gestational month 6, continues to develop at a regular rate throughout childhood and adolescence
A spurt in myelination in parts of the brain associated with language and spatial relations
Learning a second language as a child affects the myelination of language-specific pathways
The sudden end of this white matter coincides with the end of a sensitive period for language development
jean piaget
One of the classic theories about the development of cognition was proposed by Jean Piaget
Became interested in the errors made by the children than in their correct responses
Believed that these errors were representative of growth in the child’s ability to reason
why were piaget’s beliefs challenged?
Psychologists believed that he failed to account for the importance of social and cultural factors in cognition and learning and that he underestimated the capabilities of children at particular ages
assimilation
In assimilation, no changes to the existing schema are required to add the new instance
disequilibrium
When our existing schemas no longer provide a sufficient match to reality, we experience disequilibrium and become motivated to develop more complex schemas
accomodation
In accommodation, it’s the incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema
equilibration
Piaget used the term equilibration to describe the active self-regulatory process by which a child progresses through the stages of development
sensorimotor stage
The sensorimotor stage begins at birth until age 2
Sensations evolve motor responses and infants are curious, touching and tasting everything
During this stage, infants engage types of repetitive behaviours which Piaget referred to as circular reactions
primary circular reactions
Primary circular reactions (age 1-4 months) are actions that involve the infants’ own body (finger in mouth and sucking on it)
secondary circular reactions
Secondary circular reactions (age 4-8 months) involve objects other than one’s own body (using teether)
tertiary circular reactions
Tertiary secondary reactions (age 1) involve trial and error experimentation (dropping object from chair repeatedly)
preoperational stage
Preoperational stage lasts from age 2 to 6
Gets its name from the notion that children are still incapable of engaging in internal mental operations or manipulations (following the transformation of objects from one form to another)
conservation
Conservation tasks require the child to recognize that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity
egocentrism
Egocentrism is limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people
concrete operational stage
Ages of 6 and 12
Problems of conservation are easily solved and thinking becomes more logical
Only remaining limitation is an inability to handle abstract concepts
He observed that in this stage children reasoned best when allowed to engage in hands-on learning
formal operational stage
Begins around age 12
Children now able to handle abstract concepts like “what if” type of questions and form the heart of scientific inquiry
criticisms of jean piaget’s theory
Although Piaget believed that cultural and other factors might affect the age of onset for each stage, he held that the order of the stages was invariant across individuals and cultures
Other psychologists point out that individual cognitive development can be quite variable. Some adults fail to achieve the ability to reason abstractly or do so only on some problems and not on others
This variability makes cognitive development look more gradual and continuous than stagelike, as suggested by Piaget
Many psychologists believe that Piaget underestimated the capabilities of young children
At the same time, he might have overestimated the cognitive abilities of adolescents
The human brain is not fully mature until a person’s early 20s, so we would not expect fully adult cognition in an adolescent.
Finally, Piaget has been criticized for viewing developing children in relative isolation from their family, community, and culture
lev vygotsky
Stressed the role of culture and cultural differences in the development of the child
He believed cultures teach children not only what to think, but also how to think
zone of proximal development
In Vygotsky’s theory, tasks that the child can accomplish with the assistance of more experienced or knowledgeable individuals
scaffolding
He also promoted the practice of scaffolding which involves the parent or teacher being responsive to the needs of the child and providing guidance that matches the learner’s needs
theory of mind
Occurs when people understand that others have beliefs, desires and intentions that are different from their own
Emerges in children around the age of 3 to 4 years
temperament
Reflects their patterns of mood, activity and emotional responsiveness
3 categories:
Surgency or extraversion, which reflects the degree to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and social;
Negative affect, including proneness to anger, fear, sadness, and frustration, and the degree to which a child is shy and not easily soothed;
Effortful control, the ability to pay attention and inhibit behaviour
Interacts not only with the socialization provided by parents but also with the larger-scale socialization provided by culture
attachment
Emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver
Freudian concluded a mothers ability to provide contact comfort was critical in forming a strong attachment on the part of her infant
secure attachment
Secure attachment is when children explore confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance
Results from responsive parenting that teaches children that the parent is there for them
insecure attachment
Insecure attachment is less desirable for the child’s outcomes and can be split into anxious-avoidant and anxious-resistant
anxious-avoidant attachment
Anxious-avoidant attachment did not react to their mother’s leaving with distress and allowed themselves to be comforted by the stranger, when the mother returned, child did not immediately approach
anxious-resistant attachment
Anxious-resistant attachment never seemed comfortable, even when their mother was present
Her leaving was greeted with great distress and the child was alternately clingy and rejecting when she returned
parental support
Parental support takes the form of empathy and recognition of the child’s perspective
behavioral regulation
Behavioural regulation involves supervision of the child’s behaviour accompanied by consistent discipline and clear expectations
adolescence
Adolescence is a period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood
