ch 9 txtbk Flashcards
memory
ability to retain knowledge
-requires energy to form memories
information processing
refers to the flow of info through the human nervous system, including the perceptual and attention systems
top-down processes(expectations) can influence how info is interpreted and perceived
encoding
refers to the process of acquiring info and transferring it into memory
(e.g. in class by paying attention we encode info that we can retrieve later)
retrieval
recovery of stored info
2 common causes of retrieval failure are interference and stress
sensory memory
first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds large amounts of incoming data for BRIEF amounts of time
(only last as long as the neural activity produced by a sensation continues)
visual codes (or iconic memories)
sensory memory for visual info
-used for the temporary storage of info about visual images
acoustic codes (or echoic memories)
last longer than visual codes to meet our needs to hear entire words and phrases before we can understand spoken language
george sperling
demonstrated the duration of sensory memory
-by presenting a matrix of letters to study for 15 milliseconds, when asked to recall the whole matrix, they only remembered 4 or 5
-but when tones instead of verbal commands were used to signal which row to remember, they were able to recall the entire matrix
short-term memory
2nd stage of Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of info for a limited time
-nothing gets processed in short-term memory unless you pay attention to them
-have limitations in duration (w/o additional processing)
rehearsal
if you repeat info over nd over, info stays in short-term memory indefinitely, as long as you don’t think about anything else
chunking
grouping similar, or meaningful info tg
working memory
involves an active manipulation of info and is more complex, allowing multiple processes to occur simultaneously
short term vs. working memory
(1) information in working memory can be actively manipulated, whereas short-term memory passively stores memory
(2) working memory can manage multiple types of information simultaneously, whereas short-term memory cannot
long term memory
has few limitations in capacity or duration
-we don’t run out of room for new data and info can last a lifetime
maintenance rehearsal
repeating info over and over again in order to keep it in working memory
aka rote rehearsal
elaborative rehearsal
involves linking the new material to things you already know
-more effective way to move info into more permanent storage
levels of processing theory
the depth (shallow to deep) of processing applied to info that predicts its ease of retrieval
-according to this theory, words encoded according to MEANING, would be easier to remember than words encoded according to their VISUAL APPEARANCE bc encoding meaningfulness produces deeper level of attention and processing
serial position effect
When people are given a list of words to remember and told they can recall the items in any order, the likelihood that a word on the list will be remembered depends on its POSITION in the list
The primacy effect refers to the superior recall for the first words on the list, and the recency effect refers to the superior recall for the last words on the list
–the primacy effect probably occurs because people have more time to place these items in long-term memory
The recency effect probably occurs because these last words still remain in working memory at the time of retrieval
–delay in retrieval erases the RECENCY effect but not the primacy effect
Declarative memories
easy to “declare” or discuss verbally
-aka explicit memories bc they are accessed in a conscious, direct and effortful manner
nondeclarative memories
unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memory thats difficult to verbalize (e.g. memory for classical conditioning)
aka implicit memory
semantic memory
contains your store of general knowledge in the form of word meanings and facts
(general knowledge memory)
episodic memory
personal account of past experiences
autobiographical memories
semantic or episodic memories that reference the self
procedural memories
contain info about how to carry out a skilled movement (riding bike)
priming
occurs when exposure to a stimulus changes a response to a subsequent stimulus
collective memory
refers to memories of past events that are common to members of a particular social group
transactive memory
division of info among members of a group
-members of the social group are each responsible for remembering diff pieces of info, so no one needs to know everything
spreading activation model
recognizes that people form their own organizations in memory based on their personal experiences
Frederic bartlett
observed that memory does not work like a video recording of events
-we are more likely to remember details that are consistent with our schemas than those that are not
schema
a set of expectations about objects and situations
cue
any stimulus that helps you access target info
encoding specificity
a process in which memories incorporate unique combos of info when encoded
-any stimulus that was present and noticed during this encoding process could serve as a cue for retrieving target memory
context-dependent memory
the improvement in memory that occurs when the external context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
(walk into room and forget purpose for being there)
state-dependent memory
the improvement in memory that occurs when the internal state of the individual is the SAME at encoding and retrieval
(ppl in bad mood who witness event are more likely to remember details when in bad mood)
reconstruction
building of a memory out of the stored bits by blending retrieved info with new content present in working memory
own-race bias
participants show an improved memory for faces of people from their own race
-when ambiguous faces are presented, participants’ memories for the faces depend on whether they’re primed to think of the ambiguous faces as members of their own ingroup or not
flashbulb memory
a vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
forgetting
decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory
-provides a way to prioritize the things we should remember
decay
memories fade over time unless we continually practice retrieving the info
interference
the competition between newer and older info in the memory system
-the brain requires a measurable amount of time to produce a physical representation of a memory
retroactive interference
reduced memory for target info bc of subsequent learning
proactive interference
refers to reduced memory for target info as a result of earlier learning
blocking
refers to cases of forgetting that occur when we know that we have the correct info stored, but we simply can’t access it
motivated forgetting
failure to remember or retrieve unpleasant or threatening info
where does working memory in the brain occur?
the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad use the same posterior parts of the brain that are used in verbal and visual perception
top-down
influences originating in the prefrontal and parietal cortex provide the attention necessary to maintain stimulus info in working memory
declarative memories and the hippocampus
hippocampus participates in the consolidation of semantic and location info into long-term memory
-also involved with the re-experiencing of episodic memories
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories due to injury/trauma
source amnesia
ppl with this maintain their semantic knowledge but do not recall how they acquired it
-a man who experienced this could play chess but couldn’t remember who taught him how to play
which areas of the brain are important for remembering emotional personal experiences
temporal lobe and insula
what is affected when damage is done to prefrontal cortex
episodic memory affected and can produce source amnesia
procedural memories and brain
correlated with activation of basal ganglia, forebrain structures that are part of the brain’s motor systems
mnemonics
expand memory capacity by linking the material to be remembered to info that’s relatively effortless to retrieve
elaborative rehearsal
(when you connect material to personal experience), anchors new material in your existing memory stores and makes it easier to retrieve
