Viticulture Flashcards

Question

What does physiological ripeness mean?

Answer 1

A concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics酚类物质, the condition of the berry and its pulp果肉, and seed lignification种子木质化—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine.

Answer 2

57°F/13.89°C 华氏度(℉)=32+摄氏度(℃)×1.8,摄氏度(℃)=(华氏度(℉)-32)÷1.8

Answer 3

50°F and 68°F(10-20°C)

Answer 4

1) classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to 适当that temperature—is the California Heat Summation Index, also known as the Winkler Index. This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days. Degree days are calculated by multiplying相乘the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation：仅根据温度对气候进行分类并因此推荐适合该温度的品种的一种方法是加州热量总和指数（也称为温克勒指数）。该等级根据度日数将气候分为五个区域。度数天数的计算方法是将生长季节（定义为 4 月 1 日至 10 月 31 日）每个月的天数乘以该月超过 50°F/10centigrade 的平均度数。然后将月份的总数相加即可得出热量总和。比如6月有(30天) X (6月里超过10摄氏度的平均度数)，然后将4月-10月的热量相加得出总和。 2) Also called “California Heat Summation Index”.

Answer 5

For red grapes 70°F (21.1°C), for white grapes is 66°F(18.89°C).

Answer 6

between 30° and 50°

Answer 7

Approximately 10-30 inches/254-762mm(1inche=25.4mm) of rainfall annually

Answer 8

*The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant抗旱植物, but it still requires approximately 10-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop. *If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening间断成熟 and complete shutdown完全关闭 of the vine if the stress is too severe严重.

Answer 9

*Disadvantages: wind, is often a detriment损害 to the vine if it blows persistently hard. At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine破坏 flowering and denude剥夺vines. *Advantages: wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air.

Answer 10

The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography地形, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it. Terroir is not only the soil; terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine—factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified放大的 or subsumed归入in the resulting wine.

Answer 11

*Macroclimate: Climate of larger area, the regional climate or a country. Eg: Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence; However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor. *Mesoclimate: the climate of a particular vineyard. Eg: La Tâche has a single mesoclimate; However, the largest Grand Cru in Burgundy - Corton has several mesoclimate. *Microclimate: refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy藤曼树冠. Eg: Techniques of canopy management, these include winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir. 包括冬季修剪、摘叶、芽定位以及复杂的棚架系统的使用——人类的双手在风土条件中发挥作用。

Answer 12

Between the pH of 5.5 and 7.0, the cation rate阳离子率, or ability of grapevines to absorb the nutrients in the soil around them, increases, making more nutrients available and easily digestible for grapevines. It enables them to absorb everything they need to grow properly. Some research also suggests that soils in this range allow grape berries to retain more acidity as they ripen, leading to brighter, more acidic finished wines. In Champagne, Burgundy, and Santorini, growers often attribute the finesse of their wines to the high pH found in calcium-rich soils.

Answer 13

1) Most vines can be classified as either head-trained头部整形法 or cordon-trained主蔓整形法. 2) In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled扭曲over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from从...冒出it each season每个季节都会长出结果实的芽. 3) Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a head. 4) Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all. 5) Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned.

Answer 14

1）SPUR pruning is pruning a grapevine leaving short, two bud spurs, evenly spaced and pointing up along each cordon of a grapevine; 2）CANE pruning is much more labour intensive, and involves selecting the two strongest and well formed shoots on either side of a vine, trimmed to a length which has the right number of buds on each side to produce the grape bunches, and these two shoots are then wrapped tightly捆紧, or wound缠绕around the cordon wire to form a cordon cane.

Answer 15

1) Fungal 真菌diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard. Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century. can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications. 2) Bacterial细菌 diseases are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine. 3) Viral病毒 diseases, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines. Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation. 4) Phytoplasma 支原体diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century.

Answer 16

1）An aphid蚜虫that feeds on the roots of vines, is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile. 2）Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera. Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal(many of the Mosel Vineyards, never reached Chile), act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera作为天然屏障，阻止根瘤蚜的传播。

Answer 17

BJ: it’s a fungal disease, originated in the US, it attacks the green parts of the vine and develops white spores孢子which have a powdery appearance. It causes the grapes to split and lose their fruity flavour with a mouldy bitter taint, reduce the yield. 1） Is a Fungal Disease likes warm, shady阴凉conditions and also develops on green parts of the vine. 2） It can affect bud development and shoot growth, and when it appears on grapes it can cause them to split. The affected grapes lose their fruity flavours and give wine a mouldy bitter taint发霉的苦味. *was treated with a sulfur-based spray.

Answer 18

Peronospora

Answer 19

BJ: It’s a fungal disease, (originated US), thrives in warm humid condition. Attacks the green parts of the vine, especially the leaves, and causes them to fall off, causing late ripening, unripe flavours and reduced yields. *Use Bordeau mixture, copper-based spray. A Fungal Disease thrives in warm, humid conditions and attacks green parts of the vine, especially young leaves, which can be lost in bad cases. The damage to leaves impedes阻碍grape ripening, leading to unripe flavours. Damage to developing berries reduces yield. *Use Bordeaux mixture, a copper-based spray to protect.

Answer 20

1） is caused by the same fungus that causes Grey Rot, which is called Botrytis cinerea a synonym for Noble Rot. In order to develop as Noble Rot the fungus needs to have its appearance when the grapes are ripe. Its development is encouraged by humid misty mornings followed by warm, sunny days. In these conditions the fungus will puncture刺 the grape skin with microscopic filaments微观细丝 through which water will evaporate. If the conditions are too wet the fungus will spread boo rapidly and cause Grey Rot. If it is too dry the fungus won't develop at all. As Noble Rot develops the evaporation concentrates both the acids and the sugars in the grape.

Answer 21

Pourriture noble, Edelfaule, noble rot.

Answer 22

BJ: are microscopic worms, which ffed on the root of the vine, seriously damaging them, and they also transmit virus. (Treatment is very difficult很难治疗, so prevention is the best cure). are microscopic 微小worms that attack the roots of vines and in certain instances transmit vine viruses在某些情况下传播藤曼病毒. The root damage can lead to reduced yields and make the vine more susceptible to water and nutrient stress破坏根部导致产量降低而且容易受到缺水缺营养的影响.Treatment is very difficult很难治疗, so prevention is the best cure.所以预防很重要。This involves totally sanitising消毒 the soil before replanting and using resistant rootstocks. Increasing use of drip-irrigation in Argentina and Chile has led to a dramatic increase in the number of nematodes there. Now many vineyards are being planted with grafted vines, not as a protection against Phylloxera, but rather against nematodes.南美和智利使用滴灌导致线虫极具增加，现在很多采用砖木不是为了预防根瘤蚜而是为了预防线虫。

Answer 23

1) There are three Pseudococcus species are about 0.2 inch long, flat, oval shaped椭圆, and have a white waxy covering with wax filaments细丝sticking out from circumference圆周of the body. Longer filaments from the posterior后部 end make these mealybugs appear to have "tails." 所有三种假球菌属的成虫均长约 0.2 英寸，扁平，椭圆形，具有白色蜡状覆盖物，蜡丝从身体周围伸出。后端的较长细丝使这些粉虱看起来有“尾巴”。 2) In recent years there have been increases in the number of grape mealybug infestations in the San Joaquin Valley(California) and North Coast and an increase in the incidence of obscure and longtailed mealybugs in Central Coast vineyards. Mealybugs damage grapes by contaminating污染clusters with cottony egg sacs卵囊, larvae幼虫, adults, and honeydew, and transmit grape viruses. 近年来，圣华金河谷和北海岸的葡萄粉虱侵扰数量有所增加，而中央海岸葡萄园中不起眼的长尾粉虱的发病率也有所增加。粉虱通过用棉状卵囊、幼虫、成虫和蜜露污染葡萄串来损害葡萄。这三个物种都可以传播葡萄病毒。

Answer 24

Crown Gall

Answer 25

1) It’s a Bacterial Diseases细菌疾病, The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured破裂的,the bacteria invade入侵the trunk. 2) When affected, a vine develops galls瘤状物 on its trunk, which girdle缠绕 and strangle勒死 the vine, withering使枯萎 or killing outright the portions of the vine above. 3) The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood.冠瘿病（黑结）：根癌农杆菌细菌会在多种植物中引起冠瘿病。当受到影响时，藤蔓会在其树干上长出肿瘤（虫瘿），这些肿瘤会环绕并基本上勒死藤蔓，使藤蔓上面的部分枯萎或完全死亡。这种细菌在寒冷的气候中繁衍生息，并且系统性地生活在葡萄藤内部。在冬季结冰期间，当葡萄藤的树干可能破裂时，细菌就会侵入外树干，迅速繁殖并引发疾病的发作。该疾病通过受细菌感染的接穗传播。 There is little can be done to control the disease.

Answer 26

1) A Fungal Disease, native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. 2) The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide杀菌sprays.黑腐病原产于北美，随着 1800 年代末抗根瘤蚜砧木的进口，黑腐病传播到了欧洲。这种疾病是由吉尼亚德韦利真菌引起的，起源于藤蔓芽、叶子和浆果上的黑斑。尽管如果不加以控制，产量下降可能会造成灾难性的后果，但这种疾病可以通过喷洒杀菌剂来控制。

Answer 27

1) It’s a Bacterial Diseases细菌疾病, caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks条纹in early spring, and eventually wither and die. 2) Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture.白叶枯病：由黄单胞菌引起，白叶枯病通常会杀死葡萄树的幼芽。它们在早春出现深棕色条纹，最终枯萎死亡。这种疾病通过雨水和受损的修剪工具传播，可以通过热水处理和铜喷雾（例如波尔多混合物）来控制。

Answer 28

Black Measles

Answer 29

Esca, Leafroll virus, Pierce’s Disease, Fanleaf virus, Eutypia(Dead Arm), Flavescence Dorée.

Answer 30

BJ: is a fungal disease, which attacks the trunk of the vine and will quickly kill it. It is particularly affecting European vineyards, in France, Spain, Italy and now Germany.10-20 year old vines apear to be more susceptible to this disease and there is currently no cure. 1) A Fungal Disease, one of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, Esca thrives in warmer climates, there is no known control or cure in the world. 2) Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire. 3) Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated加剧 by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning process (shears of careless vineyard workers).埃斯卡病是已知最早的真菌性葡萄树病害之一，它在温暖的气候中生长，但在全世界范围内都存在，并且没有已知的控制或治疗方法。与其他真菌疾病不同，埃斯卡病是真菌复合体而不是单一生物体的结果。在年轻的葡萄藤上，这种疾病会削弱生长，影响浆果发育并使叶子变色；在炎热的天气里，受影响的幼藤可能会突然死亡。在较老的藤蔓中，这种疾病会影响木材，导致树干和臂的内部软化并从内部腐烂——这种情况导致古罗马人使用感染艾斯卡的树干作为柴火，因为其海绵内部很快着火。成熟的、感染埃斯卡病毒的葡萄树很少能活过 30 年。这种疾病会因降雨而加剧，并可通过风或粗心的葡萄园工人的修枝剪传播。

Answer 31

BJ: It’s a Bacterial disease which will kill vines. Transmitted by the glassy-winged-sharpshooter, make vines incapable to produce chlorophyll叶绿素. The disease is common in Southern US and Mexico. No cure. 1) It’s a Bacterial Diseases细菌疾病, most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter玻璃翅神枪手—a leafhopping insect叶跳昆虫 found near citrus orchards and oleander竹夹桃plants. 2) Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, make vines incapable of producing chlorophyll叶绿素and killing it within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks爆发 of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. 3) There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion.皮尔斯病是由细菌苛养木杆菌引起的，最常见的是由玻璃翅神枪手（一种在柑橘园和夹竹桃植物附近发现的叶跳昆虫）传播的疾病，它是一种祸害，使葡萄藤无法产生叶绿素，并在一到五年内杀死它。这种疾病在美国南部和墨西哥很常见，但在加利福尼亚州正在稳步向北传播，玻璃翅神枪手的目击和该疾病的爆发在索诺玛县和纳帕县引起了重大警报。这种疾病既没有治愈方法，也没有化学控制方法，其他国家的当局正在维持严格的检疫以防止其入侵。

Answer 32

BJ: It’s a viral disease, spread by the mealybug and infected cuttings, the virus causes considerable decrease in yield, delay in ripening, and reduces the quality of wine. 1) It’s a Viral Disease. Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant耀眼的 shades色调 of red and gold in the autumn, reduced yields and delayed ripening. 2) Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealybug粉蝽, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed.卷叶病毒：卷叶病毒是一种由至少九种不同病毒复合体引起的疾病，可能造成世界上多达 60% 的葡萄产量损失。尽管受影响的藤蔓在秋天呈现出耀眼的红色和金色色调，但如此美丽的颜色，再加上叶子特征性的向下卷曲，标志着病毒邪恶的一面：产量减少和成熟延迟。卷叶病毒通过受感染的藤蔓繁殖或通过粉蝽等昆虫媒介传播，目前无法治愈，但不会杀死藤蔓；因此，受感染的藤蔓并不总是被移除。

Answer 33

BJ: Fanleaf virus causes the leavs and shoots to be deformed(resembling fans), with poor fruit set and serious reduction in yield. (transmit by nematodes), no cure. It’s a Viral Disease. Fanleaf Degeneration, a nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, seriously reduce yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms变形 shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed畸形的, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands黄色带 around the veins叶脉. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished缩短. 扇叶退化是一种由土壤线虫传播的病毒，以受感染的根部为食，会严重降低产量，必须清除受影响的葡萄园。扇叶退化是一种类似疾病的复合体，它会导致枝条生长变形，并导致坐果不良和果粒（无籽）浆果。受感染的藤蔓上的叶子畸形，外观像扇子，并且可能在叶脉周围形成黄色带。葡萄树的生产寿命和冬季耐久性都会缩短。

Answer 34

Eutypia, Eutypa, Eutipiose, Eutypa Dieback

Answer 35

BJ: is a fungal disease which affects the wood of the vine and causes it to die slowly. No Cure. 1） A fungal Disease, also called dead arm. The disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds伤口. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted发育不良shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins毒素, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. 2） This disease has a drastic巨大的effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola, manifests as a similar disease.也称为死臂病，是由 Eutypa lata 真菌引起的。孢子被雨水携带，通过修剪伤口进入葡萄藤。这种疾病在地中海气候中很常见，由于影响大量植物，因此很难控制。当真菌释放毒素时，受感染的藤蔓会出现枝条生长发育不良的情况，最终受感染的藤蔓可能会死亡——即死亡的手臂。这种疾病对产量有巨大影响，但不会降低作物的质量。事实上，澳大利亚的达伦贝格 (d’Arenberg) 将死臂对品质的有益影响归因于这种疾病的绰号，并以这种疾病的绰号推销其标志性设拉子 (Shiraz)。另一种真菌，葡萄拟茎点霉，表现为类似的疾病。

Answer 36

BJ: It’s a Phytoplasma Diseases, causes the leaves to curl(卷曲) and turn yellow or red depending on the vine variety. This will reduce the yield and may kill young vines. It’s spread by leafhoppers. 1) It’s a Phytoplasma Diseases植原体病, a form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper叶蝉昆虫insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel萎缩. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules脓包and cracks裂纹 to form, and may kill young vines. 2) No cure exists, although insecticides杀虫剂 may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread.是葡萄树黄色的一种形式，于 1949 年首次出现在雅马邑白兰地。叶蝉昆虫和受感染葡萄藤的繁殖会传播这种疾病，最初会延迟发芽并减缓芽的生长，最终导致葡萄串从葡萄藤上脱落，浆果落下。萎缩。这种疾病会使叶子变色，导致脓疱和裂缝形成，并可能杀死幼藤。尽管可以使用杀虫剂来控制叶蝉昆虫数量并延缓其传播，但尚无治愈方法

Answer 37

5000-10000 varieties

Answer 38

They are native to North America and are rarely used to produce grapes for winemaking. However, they are resistant to the vine pest Phylloxera, which attacks the vine's roots and so they are used to provide root systems onto which V. vinifera vines are grafted.

Answer 39

Shoots are the new growth a vine produces each year。

Answer 40

Along the length of each shoot are a number of regularly spaced bumps疙瘩called nodes节点.

Answer 41

One Year Old Wood: Shoots turn woody木质化 during the winter after they have grown. The following spring, they become one year old wood (and the buds that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots). Every winter the vine is pruned and the one year old wood will either be called a cane or a spur depending on how many buds it is left with. A cane is long, with eight to fifteen buds whereas a spur is short and has only two to three buds Cordon上面的短枝short cane叫Spur, Spur 或者Cane=one year old wood 上面会长出shoots新枝条（新枝条来年春天木质化之后变成Cane或者spur），而只有shoot上面才会结果vines only produce fruit on shoots——>shoot到一年木质化了之后开始修建prun, 如果长度比较长叫Cane通常拥有8-15个芽buds；如果比较短只有2-3个buds就叫spur。

Answer 42

Permanent Wood - This is wood which is more than one year old. (In the vineyard the amount of permanent wood is restricted受限制的by pruning. ) The permanent wood is made up of the trunk and the arms of the vine, which are sometimes referred to as cordons.

Answer 43

In order to preserve the unique characteristics of each variety, identical完全相同的copies can be propagated either from cuttings插条繁殖 or by layering压条繁殖. A cutting is a section taken from a healthy shoot before it has become woody. This is planted, takes root and grows into a new plant. Layering works by bending a cane down and burying埋入 a section of it in the ground. The buried section will take root and once it has established itself the cane linking it to the original plant is cut.

Answer 44

Traditionally, propagation was achieved by layering or taking cuttings from a wide range of different plants in the vineyard. In this process is called mass selection. (Although this kind of vineyard might have been planted with one grape variety, over time the continual mutations create noticeable variation between the different plants in the vineyard.)

Answer 45

Clonal selection is to select a single plant with the most favoured characteristics, clonal work continues at secialist nurseries and research stations. As each generation of the selected clone grows, cuttings are taken from only the specimens标本that best show the desired characteristics. When an ideal plant is found, it can be propagated commercially and sold to vineyard owners. The population of its cuttings is called a clone.

Answer 46

In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate排除negative traits through appropriate selection, while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained.可以维持更广泛的遗传多样性。

Answer 47

In viticultural language a crossing is a grape variety whose original 'parent' vine was grown from a seed whose parent plants were both V. vinifera.杂交是指一个葡萄品种的母株是由两个酿酒葡萄/欧亚葡萄通过有性繁殖得到的种子长大的（非插条cutting或压条layering). Although by this definition every vinifera variety is ultimately a crossing, the word is usually used only where the identity of the parents is known. 这样看来好像所有新品种都是杂交的，但是一般来说Crossing被用在父母已知的情况下。For example, modern DNA techniques have shown that Cabernet Sauvignon was a crossing of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc. Some well-known modern crosses include Müller Thurgau (Riesling x Madeline Royale) and Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault).

Answer 48

For viticulturalists, a hybrid is a vine whose parents come from two different species of Vitis是由不同的葡萄种类杂交的（比如欧亚葡萄与山葡萄杂交） which may or may not include V. vinifera. Nowadays, hybrids are rarely used to produce fruit for winemaking. However, they are still used almost globally for their rootstocks. 但是中国Beichun却是一个在酿酒使用的品种，a Chinese hybrid grape created in the 1950's in an attempt to find a grape that could survive the extreme cold of a Chinese winter. It is a cross between one of the wild mountain grapes, Vitis Amurensis from Jilin Province, north of North Korea, and Muscat Hamburg. Beichun=Muscat Hamburg x Vitis Amurensis (from Jilin).

Answer 49

Not only to protect against Phylloxera, as more and more specialised rootstock hybrids are developed, it is becoming clear that their use can confer授予other advantages to the viticulturalist: Rootstocks can be used to protect against nematodes线虫, provide better resistance to drought conditions and soil salinity更好地抗干旱和土壤盐分, as well as control the vigour of the V. vinifera part of the plant控制葡萄部分的活力. They are still frequently used for the other advantages they offer despite the extra cost in planting grafted rather than ungrafted vines.

Answer 50

Grafting is the technique used to join a hybrid rootstock to a V. vinifera variety. Grafting used to be a very labour-intensive operation but the most popular modern technique, called bench-grafting, is now a fully automated process carried out by specialist plant nurseries.现在是由专业植物苗圃进行的完全自动化的过程。For this technique a short section of cane is cut from a rootstock variety and another section of cane of identical diameter直径相同的is cut from a V. vinifera variety. The two canes are spliced拼接together by machine and stored in a warm humid environment so that the wound can heal愈合and form a callus愈伤组织. At this point any roots on the scion接穗(V. vinifera part) or shoots on the rootstock are trimmed off这时任何欧亚葡萄部分的根部以及北美葡萄的枝都会被修剪掉. The vines can be planted straight away or kept in cold store for up to a year until ready for use.

Answer 51

There is another form of grafting called head-grafting that is used if the grower with an established vineyard needs to switch to another variety from one season to the next. *Advantages for head-grafting: It takes a newly planted vine a minimum of three years to be able to produce a commercial crop, but 1) this technique can allow the grower to rapidly accommodate changes in the market.正常重新种植一个新品种需要至少三年时间才能收获果实，但是这个技术可以让种植者更快得到结果) 2) It is also considerably cheaper than replanting the whole vineyard and the new variety can enjoy the benefits of an established root system. (The existing vine is cut back so that only the trunk remains and either a bud or a cutting from the new variety is grafted onto the trunk. If the graft is successful the vine will produce the new fruit at the next vintage although care must be taken to remove any shoots from the original variety that might otherwise take over.)

Answer 52

In order to ripen grapes successfully the vine needs the average temperature in the growing season to be between about 16°C and 21°C. If the temperature is below 10°C it is too cold for the vine's cells to function. This is why vines are dormant in winter. As long as there is enough water for photosynthesis, the vine's activity, including photosynthesis, will increase with the temperature until it reaches in excess of 22°C. Above this temperature, the vine's cells start to consume more sugar than photosynthesis can produce. As temperatures increase beyond this temperature, all vine activity will slow and eventually stop, even with sufficient water. This is why in hot drought conditions grapes can fail to ripen. Extreme heat and insufficient water can weaken and kill vines. 在葡萄生长季节最理想的平均温度在16-21摄氏度。如果温度不够10度，葡萄细胞将不会工作。但是如果平均温度过高，细胞会吃掉更多的糖分（超过葡萄树光合作用产生的糖），所以如果平均温度超过22摄氏度，葡萄会“营养不良”，这是为什么在过热的产区葡萄有可能不会完好地成熟。如果水分不足或者过热葡萄树甚至会死亡。

Answer 53

If the temperature is cool during ripening, the grapes retain more acid and accumulate less sugar. Black grapes may struggle to reach physiological ripeness and will produce wines that are overly astringent and herbaceous. White varieties can cope in cooler climates because their tannins don't need to ripen and they can produce a balanced wine with higher acid levels. Black varieties require moderate to warm climates that allow them to fully ripen their flavour, colour and tannins.

Answer 54

Because of its high altitude, the temperature drops (annual temperature drops by about 0.6°C with every 100 metre increase in altitude.)

Answer 55

most vineyards lie between the latitudes of 30° and 50° north and south of the equator. However, factors other than latitude can make an area suitable for viticulture outside these limits.

Answer 56

The Humboldt Current off Chile and the Benguela Current off South Africa cool these regions that might otherwise be too hot for viticulture; the Gulf Stream warms the north west of Europe that might otherwise be too cold.

Answer 57

Fog can help cool an area that may otherwise struggle to produce high-quality grapes. This is a particularly important feature in many top vineyard areas in California as well as Casablanca in Chile.雾可以帮助为可能难以生产优质葡萄的地区降温。这是加州许多顶级葡萄园区以及智利卡萨布兰卡的一个特别重要的特征。

Answer 58

1) Aspect - The direction in which a slope faces is known as its aspect. The vineyards with an aspect facing the equator receive the most heat. In the northern hemisphere south facing slopes get the most warmth whereas in the southern hemisphere it is north facing slopes. 2) This phenomenon is especially important in cool climates where the extra warmth can make the difference between a vine being able to ripen a crop or not. 3) Steeper slopes benefit even more from this effect.This can be seen very clearly in the best vineyards of the Mosel which not only have the most favourable aspect but are also very steep.

Answer 59

Eg: without the influence of Lake Ontario viticulfure would not be possible in the Niagara Peninsula.

Answer 60

Seas and lakes can moderate the temperature differences between summer and winter, and also the diurnal range. High diurnal range bring cool night help the vine rest and extend the growing season. They also help slow the loss of volatile aromas from the grapes during ripening. Smaller diurnal range offers warm nights accelerate ripening, particularly the production of sugar. *Wines from regions with high diurnal ranges tend to be fresher and more aromatic; *those from regions with smaller diurnal ranges tend to be more full-bodied.

Answer 61

Napa Valley close to the Pacific, but has high diurnal range due to the alternation of on-shore and off-shore breezes and the effects of fog.

Answer 62

1) If temperatures fall below -20°C (Winter Freeze) then the vine can be seriously damaged or killed. The part of the vine most at risk is the graft callus. In areas at risk from extreme cold, earth can used to cover up and lies protect the callus. In some extremely continental regions, the whole vine is buried over the winter. 2) Spring Frosts occur when cold air below 0°C collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that has settled on surfaces. If this happens to newly burst buds or shoots it kills them. The damage done and the impact on yields can be enormous and in regions that are at risk growers go to great lengths to minimise the risk.

Answer 63

There are four main forms of protection有四种主要的保护形式: 1）Burners燃烧器may be placed throughout the vineyard and lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates movement in the air preventing the cold air from settling and causing the frost. Smudge pots烟熏罐 are a well-known type of burner that also create smoke. The smoke acts as insulation绝缘 keeping ground heat in烟雾起到隔热作用并保持地面热量. 2）Wind machines风力机 are widely deployed in vineyards noted for frosts. The most common form looks like a large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the temperature at ground level above freezing. Some modern wind machines incorporate配有heaters加热器. 3）Sprinklers喷水器may be used to spray water onto the vines. As the water freezes, it releases some latent heat into the plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots喷水到葡萄树上结冰时候会释放热量以保护嫩芽和新枝. 4）Thoughtful vineyard design can also minimise the risk of frosts. Because cold air sinks to the lowest point it can find, it is best to plant vineyards on slopes and avoid depressions in which cold air can collect. Vineyards planted on the middle of the slope are noticeably less at risk from frost damage than low-lying areas.因为冷空气向最低点沉积，所以尽量避免在洼地种葡萄园，而是选择在山坡上。Vines can also be trained high to avoid the worst of the cold air.

Answer 64

1) Flowering and fruit set can both be disrupted by heavy rainfall and this can significantly reduce the number of grapes that are formed. 2) Damp conditions that follow rainfall also encourage fungal infection. 3) Heavy rain shortly before harvest time can cause the berries to swell 膨胀 This dilutes稀释 the flavours in the wine they produce and in extreme cases berries can split, which attracts fungal disease. 开花和坐果都会被降雨干扰，强降雨会令葡萄减产，潮湿环境会滋生霉菌，在采摘前的降雨会令葡萄过度膨胀，从而稀释葡萄酒风味，极端情况会令葡萄裂开感染霉菌。

Answer 65

Low temperature: *If temperatures fall below -20°C (Winter Freeze) then the vine can be seriously damaged or killed. The part of the vine most at risk is the graft callus嫁接愈伤组织. *Spring Frosts occur when cold air below 0°C collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that has settled on surfaces. If this happens to newly burst buds or shoots it kills them. The damage done and the impact on yields can be enormous. High temperature: *Mild Winters or lack of a defined winter can prevent the vine becoming dormant温和的冬季会阻止葡萄树进入冬季休眠. In extreme cases, particularly in subtropical climates, the vine can fall out of its natural annual cycle and may produce more than one crop each year. Its life will be shortened, and the quality of the crop will suffer. 在极端的亚热带葡萄树会脱离自然的年度周期，可能不止生长一茬作物，这样葡萄藤寿命会缩短。Mild winters also mean larger populations of vineyard insect pests survive to attack the vine the following summer温冬还会让虫害存活而在夏季攻击葡萄树. *High Summer Temperatures where there is insufficient water available, the vine may stop ripening the grapes, may shed its leaves and in extreme cases the vine will die会落叶，极端情况下会死亡。

Answer 66

There are three main techniques: 1) Drip irrigation滴灌 is the most advanced and expensive. Each vine has its own dripper that can be computer controlled to ensure that each vine gets the optimum最佳amount of water. 2） Sprinklers喷灌are still widely used and cheaper than drip irrigation but they waste a lot of water and, like rain, they create damp conditions in the vineyard increasing the risk of disease. If correctly designed, sprinklers can also be used in frost protection. 3） Flood irrigation 漫灌 is very cheap to use but is only possible in vineyards that are flat or very gently sloping and where there is access to large quantities of water需要在平地或者很缓的坡而且需要大量水源, as in Chile and Argentina

Answer 67

Cool: regions with an average growing season temperature of 16.5°C or below. Moderate: regions with an average growing season temperature of 16.5°C to 18.5°C. Warm: regions with an average growing season temperature of 18.5°C to 21°C. Hot: regions with an average growing season temperature in excess of 21°C. Hot areas are generally unsuitable for viticulture.

Answer 68

These climates have the greatest difference in temperature between the hottest and coldest months and are usually characterised by short summers with a large, rapid temperature drop in autumn. Cool continental climates such as Germany and Champagne are at risk from spring frost and low temperatures throughout the growing season can affect flowering, fruit set and ripening. They are therefore better suited to varieties that bud late and ripen early. Continental climates are also noted for having very dry summers and so if the temperature is high then irrigation can be necessary.

Answer 69

Maritime climates are characterised by cool to moderate temperatures and a low annual difference between the hottest and coldest months. Rainfall tends to be evenly spread throughout the year, which helps in moderating the temperature and the light levels. This means, as in the case of Bordeaux, that the growing season can often continue far into autumn, ensuring there is enough warmth in the growing season to ripen Cabernet, which might otherwise struggle to ripen at this latitude. However, the spring and summer rain can be a very significant risk to the flowering, fruit set and the health of the grapes at harvest.

Answer 70

Mediterranean climates are also characterised by a low temperature difference between the hottest and coldest months but the summers tend to be warm and dry. These conditions are to be found throughout the Mediterranean as well as much of coastal California, Chile, South-Eastern Australia and the Cape Winelands. The extra warmth and sunlight compared with maritime climates leads to wines that are fuller bodied, with riper tannins, higher alcohol and lower acid. The lower rainfall can have a positive effect on the health of the grapes but can also lead to drought.

Answer 71

This consists of the permanent structure of stakes木桩and wires金属丝 that are present in a vineyard. This can vary from nothing to hugely complex multi-wire systems.

Answer 72

The most common symptom症状linked to nutritional deficiency营养缺乏 is chlorosis萎黄病. The leaves turn yellow because they lose chlorophyll叶绿素. The result is reduced photosynthesis, and the quality of the grapes and yield is affected. The most common cause of chlorosis is the inability无力of the vine to gain sufficient iron from the soil. 与营养缺乏相关的最常见症状是萎黄病。叶子变黄是因为失去了叶绿素。其结果是光合作用减少，葡萄的品质和产量受到影响。萎黄病最常见的原因是葡萄藤无法从土壤中获取足够的铁。 This is commonly associated with soils with high limestone content such as those found in Champagne, Burgundy, Rioja and Barolo. The best solution to this problem is to use a rootstock that can tolerate lime soils. 这通常与石灰石含量高的土壤有关，例如香槟、勃艮第、里奥哈和巴罗洛的土壤。解决这个问题的最佳方法是使用能够耐受石灰土的砧木。

Answer 73

The vine's permanent wood and canes are trained to follow the trellising system that has been established. If there is no trellising system the vine shoots will grow unsupported.

Answer 74

This is the removal of unwanted leaves, canes and permanent wood either in the winter or during the growing season.

Answer 75

* Early aims of pruning by the Ancient Egyptians would have been to increase the size of individual berries and bunches. * A vine which is lightly pruned has many buds and will produce numerous bunches with small berries. * To establish or maintain a shape of vine, which makes all other vineyard operations easier. * Most importantly it regulates the next season’s yield by controlling the number of buds which can burst and produce bunches of grapes.

Answer 76

1) The main purpose of winter pruning is to determine the number and location of buds, which will form shoots for the production of fruit in the coming harvest. 2) There are two types of winter pruning: *Replacement cane pruning替换长枝修剪: One, or more, canes are retained. The remaining canes will be trained horizontally onto the trellis. It is a system that cannot be easily mechanised and requires a large skilled workforce. This pruning system is often referred to as Guyot, one cane is retained in Single Guyot; two in double Guyot. *Spur pruning短枝修剪: A larger number of two to three bud spurs are retained. These are either distributed along a permanent cordon of old wood, which is trained horizontally along the trellis, or around the head of a vine. Vines with a permanent cordon can be mechanically pruned, leading to a significant cost saving. Permanent wood is also less susceptible易受影响than canes to frost damage.

Answer 77

A trellis is a mad-made physical structure, consisting normally of wood and wires. ??What is training system培形方式? The word training describes the actions of pruning in winter and summer, and shoot and cane placement, so that the vine’s truck, arms, and cordons and buds are appropriately located on the trellis system. * Those training systems which involve trellises are often named after the trellis.

Answer 78

1) Bush trained=Gobelet=Head trained: The permanent wood consists of a vertical stump, which is pruned to retain a number of spurs distributed around the head of the vine. The shoots that grow from these spurs are often untrellised, and sprawl across the ground. This system is practical in hot, dry and sunny regions such as the Southern Rhône and the Barossa Valley. In cool or wet regions, the shade can impede阻碍grape ripening and the lack of airflow can limit evaporation蒸发and promote disease. This is avoided in Beaujolais where the shoots of bush trained vines are tied together at the tips尖端, which helps expose bunches to air and sunlight. This system is not suitable for mechanical harvesting. This training system is sometimes referred to as gobelet. 2) Vertical shoot positioning (VSP)垂直枝条固定架式Cordon-trained: This is the most common training system worldwide, and may be used with replacement-cane or cordon-spur pruning. There is a single canopy consisting of shoots that are trained upwards, vertically from their cane or cordon and are tied in place onto the trellis. This canopy may extend both sides of the vine's trunk, or may be limited to one side. From the trunk, the cane(s) or cordon(s) are trained horizontally, although canes may be bent onto a horizontal arch. The cane(s) or cordon(s) may be low trained, to benefit from heat retained by the earth, or high trained, to avoid frosts. Cane或者cordon可以被固定到很低以吸收地表热量，也可以离很高，以防止春季霜冻The shoots are then trained vertically. By keeping the shoots apart this system keeps the canopy as well aerated and shade free as possible. VSP is most suitable for conditions where vines are planted to a high density. 3) Big vines大葡萄树整枝法: Where vines are planted to lower densities, systems have been developed to balance vine vigour and ensure best use is made of the available light. These systems are usually spur pruned and many are suitable for mechanical harvesting. Pergola systems can be regarded as'big vines', though they are designed to allow additional crops underneath the vines, rather than balancing vine vigour.

Answer 79

To encourage competition between vines for nutrients and water, to limit their vigour, the The classic European solution was to plant vines in sites low in nutrients but at high densities, typically 5000 to 10000 vines per hectare, and sometimes even higher.

Answer 80

SO2 is generally added to the must or juice before fermentation to prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation.

Answer 81

Add sugar to the must to increase the final alcohol and glycerin甘油content of the wine.

Answer 82

A technique of alcohol adjustment, reverse osmosis, separates the wine into two constituent成分 parts, permeate渗透物 and retentate滞留物. The permeate, which contains water and ethanol乙醇, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol. 它将葡萄酒分成两个组成部分：渗透物和滞留物。然后将含有水和乙醇的渗透物蒸馏至适当的水平，然后与保留物（葡萄酒的芳香化合物）以较低的酒精含量重新结合。直接把酒精给过滤掉，这技术叫反渗透（Reverse Osmosis）反渗透是一种使用机器过滤出葡萄酒中多余的酒精成分的方法。相对于加水而言，反渗透法不仅降低了葡萄酒的酒精度，还不会稀释葡萄酒的风味或者产生其他影响。

Answer 83

In 2009, but provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%.

Answer 84

Spinning cone and reverse osmosis

Answer 85

Winemakers in warm regions may choose to balance their wines through acidification. The addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principal acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred.在葡萄汁或成品酒中添加酸。酒石酸和苹果酸是葡萄汁中的两种主要酸，可用于酸化；优选在发酵前添加酒石酸。

Answer 86

除酒精和酸化 de-alcoholization and acidification

Answer 87

Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation. 双乙酰是葡萄酒中黄油香气的化合物，是苹果酸乳酸发酵的副产品。

Answer 88

lactic acid bacteria乳酸菌 convert harsh malic acids苹果酸 into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide.It rounds out a wine’s texture.

Answer 89

Carbonic maceration is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic无氧的environment (under a protective blanket保护层of CO2) initiate an intracellular细胞内的fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes酶to transform its own sugar into ethanol乙醇 and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts. However, such fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity失去活性 in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production. 为了维持自身的生存，浆果会释放酶，将自身的糖转化为乙醇和二氧化碳。这是在没有酵母作用的情况下发生的。然而，这种发酵不能产生超过几度的酒精，因为浆果在足够的乙醇存在下会停止活性。因此，在葡萄酒生产中，二氧化碳浸渍必须与标准发酵相结合。

Answer 90

For Beaujolais nouveau, a tank will be filled with whole berries. Berries at the bottom will be crushed under the weight of those above it and will ferment normally. The ensuing随之产生的 carbon dioxide will blanket覆盖the whole berries above, which will then begin to ferment by carbonic maceration. The grapes will explode爆裂, or the winemaker will press the juice, and then the yeasts would begin their work.

Answer 91

Material other than grapes.

Answer 92

A pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial大量的SO2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide.

Answer 93

color compounds色素化合物

Answer 94

1) Pigeage, punching down the cap into juice; 2) Remontage, in which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate搅动and aerate透气the wine to a greater degree. 3) Délestage

Answer 95

This is a method to submerge浸没 and break up the cap during fermentation. Winemaker rack the wine into a separate vessel while the cap drains fully, and then pump the wine back over the cap in the fermentation vessel. Once fermentation has concluded, a fuller-bodied red may continue to macerate for a period of days or weeks before it is pressed off the skins. This method is often used for high tannin wines? such as traditional style Barolo.

Answer 96

Free-run wine from the tank; The remaining pomace果渣 is pressed to yield coarser粗糙的, tannic press wine called wine de press.

Answer 97

Racking, is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees or sediment.

Answer 98

Bentonite(a type of clay), casein (a milk protein), isinglass(a material obtained from sturgeon bladders膀胱[ˈblædəz]从鲟鱼膀胱中获得的材料) , gelatin, and egg white皂土、酪蛋白、鱼胶、明胶和蛋清

Answer 99

The maceration of the grape skins during fermentation of red wine in order to transfer aroma, color, and tannin to the wine.

Answer 100

Winemakers freeze grapes to -7°C then press them.The ice in the grapes remains frozen while the highly concentrated juice is pressed out. This is used in regions where it is impossible to produce icewine by the natural method of frozen grapes on vines. In most countries, the resulting wine should not be permitted to be called icewine.

Answer 101

Is the process of stirring up of the lees with a stick or paddle to increase flavour extraction.

Answer 102

After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle. This process allows the juice to be racked off solids prior to fermentation.

Answer 103

French term, stopping fermentation by adding alcohol to the fermenting must.

Answer 104

Is unfermented grape juice used to sweeten wines, particularly German wines.

Answer 105

Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine. The smaller the oak container, the more marked this effect is. New oak also contributes flavor—in the form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin—and wood tannin to wine, but this effect is dulled upon repeated usage—a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its fourth to sixth year of use. Most of the barrel’s flavor is transmitted to the wine in its first year. However, a neutral barrel can still be useful, especially if new wood flavor is not desired. The use of oak chips, staves, and powder are cheaper alternatives, although they will not provide an oxidative effect. The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood.French oak has finer grains than American oak.American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage, but this method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak. French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors, whereas American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated法国橡木通常是风干的，这是一个温和的过程，可以滤出一些橡木中更具侵略性的单宁和风味，而美国橡木则需要快速窑干，并且内酯会被浓缩. In order to make an oak barrel, heat must be applied to bend each dry wooden stave into shape.A barrel is subject to light, medium, or heavy toasting, and while the level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin rises with increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas

Answer 106

Micro-oxygenation，an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate接近the effects of a new barrel at a fraction少量of the cost.

Answer 107

This process is divided into three stages: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)—the latter stage has a significant effect on the wine.

Answer 108

Benefits: 1)The oxidation helps develop complexity and depth in wine aromas (red and white wines become more earthy and savoury). 2) The oxygen helps soften tannins in red wines, 3) and also has the benefit of making the colour more stable. Disadvantages: 1) too much exposure to oxygen can result in the amount and intensity of a wine's flavour being significantly reduced. The resulting wine lacks fruit flavour and can smell stale陈旧. 2) White wines become darker and red wines develop a brown tinge. In these instances a wine is said to be oxidised and is unfit for sale. 3) In extreme cases acetic acid bacteria醋酸菌 will use the oxygen to change the wine into vinegar, rendering the wine undrinkable.

Answer 109

High levels can make the wine seem harsh and lacking fruit.

Answer 110

抗氧化作用Antioxidant Effects：在采摘后的葡萄上喷洒二氧化硫，As the grapes are picked, it can be added in powder form (potassiummetabisulfite). Levels are adjusted throughout the winemaking process. 防腐作用Antiseptic Effects：在把酒转移到橡木桶之前，传统的方法是使用sulfur candle在空桶中burn in empty barrels, gives of SO, 来起到杀菌的作用（比如醋酸菌）。Traditionally, cellarworkers sanitised their empty barrels by burning a sulfur candle in them. This gives off SO, as it burns, to clean the unwanted yeast and bacterias.

Answer 111

The fourth usage.

Answer 112

The standard small barrels are the 225 litre Bordeaux barrique (generally used for maturing red wines) and the 228 litre Burgundy pièce (widely used for fermenting and maturing white wines). These both contain roughly 300 bottles, or 25 twelve-bottle cases.

Answer 113

1) They are easy to keep clean, 2) vessels can be made in any shape and size, 3) It is also easy to build in internal temperature control mechanisms into fermentation vessels either in the form of sleeves on the outside of the vessels or internal coils内部线圈through which cold or hot liquid can be circulated to control the must temperature. 4) Inert vessels can have oak products inserted, to gain the benefits of oak in a controlled way.

Answer 114

Dis: They are expensive to install and less easy to access and clean than steel tanks. Advantages: the thick concrete shells外壁help to regulate temperature during fermentation and maturation without the need to use expensive temperature control equipment.

Answer 115

Tartaric acid(酒石酸) and malic acid(苹果酸).

Answer 116

Largest: water, second largest is sugar.

Answer 117

During picking then they usually receive their first dose of sulfur dioxide as they arrive at the winery在采摘期间，他们通常会在到达酒庄时收到第一剂疫苗

Answer 118

Must enrichment葡萄汁浓缩. These processes increase sugar levels in the must, either before or during fermentation, to increase the end degree of alcohol to the desired level. Must enrichment is forbidden in many parts of the world and is strictly controlled where it is permitted. *If abused滥用, it can ruin破坏it by creating a wine that tastes hard and thin, because there is insufficient fruit to balance the artificially elevated alcohol.

Answer 119

1) must enrichment葡萄汁浓缩. These processes increase sugar levels in the must, either before or during fermentation, to increase the end degree of alcohol to the desired level. 2) Chaptalisation, adding sugar (rather than grapes) during fermentation, to increase the end degree of alcohol. The process is named after the Comte Chaptal, the Napoleonic minister who proposed its use . 3) Potential alcohol can also be increased by removing water from the must. Devices do this typically using reverse osmosis反渗透 or vacuum真空 distillation蒸馏.

Answer 120

It’s carried out by the addiction of tartaric acid in powder form into the wine, it’s only permitted in warmer regions in Europe, but common in the New World.

Answer 121

It’s more common in cooler climate regions when the grape acid levels have not fallen sufficiently.Excess acid may be neutralised by the addition of potassium bicarbonate碳酸氢钾, or more effectively using a mix of calcium carbonate碳酸钙 and calcium tartrate-malate酒石酸-苹果酸钙的混合物, which reduces malic as well as tartaric acid.De-acidification can be used in conjunction with enrichment. 可与葡萄汁浓缩结合使用。

Answer 122

1) levels can be raised by adding tannin powder or wooden staves to the fermentation vat or by using some of the stems. (This last option is not available if the grapes are machine harvested, and is unwise if the stems have not ripened and are still green.) 2) by removing some of the juice from the ferment, to make a rosé. 3) Increasing tannin can improve a wine's structure and helps to stabilise colour.

Answer 123

1) 5¬°C-35/38¬°C: Alcoholic fermentation will not start if the temperature is below 5°C; 2) The fermentation will be stop:  when all the sugar has been consumed;  the alcohol level becomes so high the yeast die(normally around 15% abv);  the yeast run out of the nutrients they need other than sugar如果酵母耗尽了除糖以外的所需营养物质;  if the temperature reaches levels between 35°C and 38°C;  The fermentation can also stop prematurely提前if the initial concentration of sugar in the must is very high. 3) 15% abv.

Answer 124

1) The winemaker can stop the fermentation by adding SO to kill the yeast; 2) adding alcohol to raise the level above 15% abv (for fortified wines); 3) by chilling the must and filtering out the yeast.

Answer 125

By adding SO, then add the selected yeast strain, then yeast strain品系will dominate the fermentation.

Answer 126

Temperature management is important in winemaking because fermenting musts can become so hot that yeast are killed.

Answer 127

1）Fermenting at lower temperatures avoids the loss of delicate volatile aromas挥发性香气, and can encourage the development of fruity esters果味酯in white wines. 2）Higher temperatures are associated with the development of more savoury aromas during fermentation, and are necessary for the extraction of colour and tannins from black grape skins.

Answer 128

The malolactic fermentation takes place once the alcoholic fermentation has finished and is carried out by lactic bacteria. They convert the tart malic acids (found in apples) into the softer lactic acids (also found in milk) as well as creating further flavours and carbon dioxide酒精发酵完成后，苹果酸乳酸发酵就会发生，并由乳酸菌进行。它们将酸味苹果酸（存在于苹果中）转化为较软的乳酸（也存在于牛奶中），并产生更多风味和二氧化碳.

Answer 129

Positive: MLF softens and reduces acidity, and can be a source of flavours such as butter and hazelnut. Negative: some of the pure fruit aromas may be lost, and the richer, rounder, softer white wines will be less refreshing to drink.

Answer 130

1) MLF may be encouraged by raising the temperature of the wine and by not adding SO, after the alcoholic fermentation. 2) *It can be avoided through storage at cool temperatures, *the use of SO, or *by filtering out the bacteria细菌.

Answer 131

*After destemming and crushing, some winemakers prefer to leave the grapes to macerate for a period at a low temperature before fermentation, which allows for a greater extraction of colour and flavour aromas. *Another option is to heat the grapes before fermentation, which encourages the skins to release the colour, but the danger is to lose fresh fruit aromas.

Answer 132

During fermentation, if there is insufficient oxygen, then stinky臭reductive aromas can appear. (like rotten eggs, or boiled cabbage) . That’s why need to pumping over the wines to bring some necessary oxygen.

Answer 133

A fermenting vat of red wine will soon have a thick mass of pulp and skins on the surface. This mass is known as the cap.

Answer 134

30-32摄氏度

Answer 135

1) Remontage：pumping over involves drawing off wine from the bottom of the vat and pumping it up on to the top thus breaking up the cap.It is a good way of dissipating heat and oxygenating the juice. 2) Pigeage: punching down the cap down by hand with paddles on the end of sticks (now there is mechanical paddles) 3) Rotary Fermenters are modern devices where red wines are fermented in rotating horizontal tanks keeping the juice constantly in contact with the skins.旋转发酵机是一种现代化设备，红酒在旋转卧式罐中发酵，使果汁不断与果皮接触。

Answer 136

When fermentation is completed, the juice is drained off the skins, the remaining mass is pressed creating the press wine. This press wine is deeply coloured and high in tannins, it’s rarely sold as a wine but often used by winemaker when they make up their blends to bolster加强colour and tannins.

Answer 137

placing complete bunches of uncrushed grapes, together with their stems, in vats that have been filled with carbon dioxide包括将整串未压碎的葡萄连同它们的茎一起放入充满二氧化碳的大桶中。Under normal conditions, the grape cells burn glucose葡萄糖 with oxygen to release carbon dioxide, water and energy. Due to the lack of oxygen the grapes' cells are forced to get the energy they need by converting the glucose into alcohol, carbon dioxide and energy. No yeast are involved in this process. The grapes ultimately最终burst破裂and as they reach this stage they are pressed and the juice is separated from the skins. Yeast then complete the fermentation. This process extracts colour, but not tannin, and the resulting wines are soft and full of fruit, with distinctive notes of kirsch, banana, bubblegum and cinnamon-like spice. They generally do not age well.

Answer 138

Bunches are destemmed but not crushed before fermentation. The result is that an element of carbonic maceration occurs at the same time as the fermentation.在发酵过程中同时进行二氧化碳浸渍。This is traditional in Rioja and quite common in the rest of Spain.

Answer 139

Instead of filling the vat with CO,, the winemaker may use CO, created by fermenting juice released by berries at the bottom of the tank that have been crushed under the weight of the berries above them. This 'semi-carbonic maceration' is common in Beaujolais.

Answer 140

The ultimate aim is to produce a wine that is lighter in tannin, fruitier and which is well coloured.最终的目标都是酿造出单宁较淡、果香浓郁且色泽鲜艳的葡萄酒。

Answer 141

 Direct Pressing直接压榨 The black grapes are crushed and pressed in the same way as in white wine production. This extracts a little colour from the skin but care has to be taken not to extract too much tannin. This produces the most delicately coloured rosé wines.  Drawing Off 抽出 Red grapes are processed as in red wine making and once fermentation is under way the juice is drawn off after 6 to 48 hours depending on the depth of colour required. The longer the wine remains in contact with the skins the deeper the colour. Once the fermenting juice has been drawn off the fermentation continues at a cool temperature to retain fruit flavours.  Bleeding (Saignée) This is essentially the same process as drawing off, except that only a portion of the juice is removed, and the rest remains in contact with the skins to produce a red wine.基本上是跟Drawing off方法一样，唯一不同是只有一部分汁流出，剩下的酒将继续酿造红葡萄酒。 The main purpose is to increase the concentration of the red wine, and the rosé is a by-product. 放血法中桃红只是个副产品。（The ideal grapes for rosé wines tend to have less colour and more acid than the ideal grapes for red wines, so rosés made this way are rarely as good as those made from grapes that are specifically grown for rosé production.酿造桃红酒的理想葡萄一般要比酿造红葡萄酒的理想葡萄颜色要浅，酸度更高。所以如果是在酿红酒过程中生产的副产品桃红很少比专门酿造桃红的葡萄酿造的桃红酒好。）  Blending A small quantity of red wine is added to a white wine to produce a rosé. This is not permitted in the EU with the exception of rosé Champagne, but some fruity, inexpensive New World rosé wines are made this way.

Answer 142

1) Interrupting the Fermentation 中断发酵： fortification(addition of grape spirit) to stop fermentation with sugar still present; Adding a high dose of SO; By chilling the must, and filter the wine to remove any remaining yeast. 2) Adding a Sweetening Component: In Germany, medium sweet wines can be created by the addition of unfermented grape juice, or Süssreserve（Süssreserve is a sterile无菌的product made by filtering must before fermentation starts在发酵前过滤的无菌产品-所以糖分不会发酵, or by dosing it with SO或者加入二氧化硫来防止发酵). Süssreserve is added to dry wines when they are ready to be bottled./ RCGM, can also be used to achieve the same effect and is often used to add a little sweetness to high volume New World brands. 3) Concentrating Grape Sugars：The best sweet wines come from grapes that are extremely rich in sugar. Noble rot, Drying grapes on the vine= passerillage, Drying grapes after picking(PX sherry or Passito in Italy), Freezing grapes on the vine(icewine).

Answer 143

A process in which grapes are air-dried and shriveled after harvest to increase their sugar concentration.

Answer 144

Rectified精馏的Concentrated Grape Must, is a pure sugar solution extracted from grape juice.是从葡萄汁中提取的纯糖溶液。Is often used to add a little sweetness to high volume New World brands.

Answer 145

Wine lees are from dead yeast cells and grape fragments碎片 make a wine appear cloudy. These comprise the gross lees (a thick deposit that forms shortly after fermentation finishes) and fine lees (smaller particles颗粒 that slowly deposit during maturation).

Answer 146

1) Sedimentation沉降:Most wine will undergo sedimentation once the fermentation has finished. Once the gross lees have formed a deposit after fermentation the wine can then be pumped into a different vessel leaving the sediment behind, a process known as racking. 2) Fining澄清：fining agents- egg white and bentonite皂土 (clay of volcanic origin). 3) Filtration: This is a process that physically removes particles from a wine as it is passed through a filter.

Answer 147

keep some of the wine on the fine lees for a period of time, can add extra flavour and a textural roundness to the wine. The impact can be enhanced by stirring the lees regularly. If a white wine has been barrel fermented it is highly likely the winemaker will use lees contact and stirring will be done by hand. Lees stirring can be achieved in steel tanks with the use of mechanical paddles.

Answer 148

Most wine will undergo sedimentation once the fermentation has finished. Once the gross lees have formed a deposit after fermentation the wine can then be pumped into a different vessel leaving the sediment behind, a process known as racking.

Answer 149

Fining is a winemaking process that is commonly – but not always – implemented. Wine fining involves stirring an adsorbent吸附剂 substance物质, called a coagulant凝固剂, into the wine when it lies in barrel or tank, for the purpose of adhering附着 to and removing certain undesirable molecules分子. This is done to clarify and stabilize the wine before bottling since most consumers prefer wines that are neither cloudy nor excessively tannic. Wine fining agents include Bentonite(a type of clay), casein (a milk protein), isinglass(a material obtained from sturgeon bladders膀胱[ˈblædəz]从鲟鱼膀胱中获得的材料) , gelatin, and egg white皂土、酪蛋白、鱼胶、明胶和蛋清。 The most common is bentonite. What these substances have in common is a strong ability to adhere附着to any particles that may contribute to haziness浑浊or instability不稳定, pulling them out of the wine and depositing them on the bottom of the vessel. When the wine is racked off for aging or bottling, those deposits stay behind. As mentioned, not all wines go through the fining process. While quite common in inexpensive wines, the technique is not always used in prestige bottles, since some winemakers believe that it may detract降低from a wine’s complexity. 澄清是一种常见但并非总是实施的酿酒过程。葡萄酒澄清涉及将一种称为凝固剂的吸附剂物质搅拌到位于桶或罐中的葡萄酒中，以粘附和去除某些不需要的分子。这样做是为了在装瓶前澄清和稳定葡萄酒，因为大多数消费者更喜欢既不混浊也不过度单宁的葡萄酒。这些物质的共同点是具有很强的能力，可以粘附任何可能导致浑浊或不稳定的颗粒，将它们从葡萄酒中拉出并沉积在容器底部。当葡萄酒经过陈酿或装瓶时，这些沉积物就会留下来。所以不用担心——你的酒里不会有鱼鳔！如前所述，并非所有葡萄酒都会经过澄清过程。虽然这种技术在廉价葡萄酒中很常见，但并不总是在高档葡萄酒中使用，因为一些酿酒师认为它可能会降低葡萄酒的复杂性。

Answer 150

1) Fining agents can have the added effect of altering the flavour and character of the wine. 2) winemakers use this to correct problems such as oxidative taints. 3) Other winemakers use fining agents to enhance the character of their wines. For example, many Classed-Growth Bordeaux estates use egg whites to remove astringent tannins from the wine, without taking away desirable flavour components.

Answer 151

Before bottling, chill the wine down to below freezing for a short period and adding potassium bitartrate powder which can accelerate加速the formation of tartrate crystals. Then remove the crystals and powder by filtration.

Answer 152

This is a process that physically removes particles from a wine as it is passed through a filter. There are two methods of filtration, surface (or absolute) and depth: Surface Filtration works like a very fine sieve筛子. The pore孔sizes can be selected, and if desired can be so small they can remove any yeast and bacteria that might still be present in the wine. The filters are very expensive and clog up堵塞very easily and can only handle wines that have already been passed through a depth filter. They are used as a final treatment prior to bottling. Where the sieve is fine enough to remove bacteria, this is referred to as sterile无菌的filtration.当筛子足够细以去除细菌时，这被称为无菌过滤。 Depth Filtration works by passing a wine through a permeable可渗透的material that traps捕获/吸收the solid particles. These filters are able to handle very cloudy wines and can be used to remove the gross lees. The most common materials used are Kieselguhr 硅藻土(a type of earth), and sheets薄片made of cellulose纤维素fibre.

Answer 153

A type of earth, can be used to filter very cloudy wines and can remove the gross lees.

Answer 154

1) They do not taint the wine and they can provide an impermeable不透气的seal from the air. they preserve the fruit flavour in the wine longer than cork. So they are becoming increasingly popular to preserve a fresh fruit character. The lack of oxygen transfer means that there is still some debate争议over how well wines that are destined注定for long bottle ageing mature under screw cap. Some screwcaps do now permit some oxygen transfer and research is ongoing.

Answer 155

Cork taint is caused by a chemical commonly referred to as TCA (Trichloroanisole) which is present in some corks and gives a wine a mouldy, cardboardy aroma.

Answer 156

1）A grape mutation occurs when a variety reacts to changes in its environment, generally to protect itself against frost, rot or other hazards. 2）examples of grape mutations are Pinot Gris and Pinot Blanc, which are mutations of Pinot Noir.

Answer 157

Séparer les grains de raisin de la rafle avant la vinification = The French term for destemming grapes prior to pressing去梗. Synonym: Éraflage, stalking,

Answer 158

To inoculate a wine is to add an active yeast culture to the must to activate fermentation. levurage

Answer 159

Settling: allowing the grape must to settle before racking so that the solids are removed.

Answer 160

Is the process of pumping the fermenting juice over the cap during fermentation.

Answer 161

Is punching down the cap to the fermenting juice, to keep the skins fresh and to assict the cuvaison.

Answer 162

A technique used to reduce the alcohol content in wine.

Answer 163

Racking, the transfer of wine from one container to another, leaving the lees behind.

Answer 164

Reverse Osmosis, Spnning cone.

Answer 165

5000-10000 varieties

Answer 166

They are native to North America and are rarely used to produce grapes for winemaking. However, they are resistant to the vine pest Phylloxera, which attacks the vine's roots and so they are used to provide root systems onto which V. vinifera vines are grafted.

Answer 167

Shoots are the new growth a vine produces each year。

Answer 168

Along the length of each shoot are a number of regularly spaced bumps疙瘩called nodes节点.

Answer 169

One Year Old Wood: Shoots turn woody木质化 during the winter after they have grown. The following spring, they become one year old wood (and the buds that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots). Every winter the vine is pruned and the one year old wood will either be called a cane or a spur depending on how many buds it is left with. A cane is long, with eight to fifteen buds whereas a spur is short and has only two to three buds

Answer 170

Permanent Wood - This is wood which is more than one year old. (In the vineyard the amount of permanent wood is restricted受限制的by pruning. ) The permanent wood is made up of the trunk and the arms of the vine, which are sometimes referred to as cordons.

Answer 171

Variety=Varietal=Cultivar (they are synonyms).

Answer 172

In order to preserve the unique characteristics of each variety, identical copies can be propagated either from cuttings插条繁殖 or by layering压条繁殖. A cutting is a section taken from a healthy shoot before it has become woody. This is planted, takes root and grows into a new plant. Layering works by bending a cane down and burying埋入 a section of it in the ground. The buried section will take root and once it has established itself the cane linking it to the original plant is cut. ??What does Mass Selection mean? Traditionally, propagation was achieved by layering or taking cuttings from a wide range of different plants in the vineyard. In this process is called mass selection. (Although this kind of vineyard might have been planted with one grape variety, over time the continual mutations create noticeable variation between the different plants in the vineyard.)

Answer 173

Clonal selection is to select a single plant with the most favoured characteristics, clonal work continues at secialist nurseries and research stations. As each generation of the selected clone grows, cuttings are taken from only the specimens标本that best show the desired characteristics. When an ideal plant is found, it can be propagated commercially and sold to vineyard owners. The population of its cuttings is called a clone.

Answer 174

In viticultural language a crossing is a grape variety whose original 'parent' vine was grown from a seed whose parent plants were both V. vinifera.杂交是指一个葡萄品种的母株是由两个酿酒葡萄/欧亚葡萄通过有性繁殖得到的种子长大的（非插条cutting或压条layering). Although by this definition every vinifera variety is ultimately a crossing, the word is usually used only where the identity of the parents is known. 这样看来好像所有新品种都是杂交的，但是一般来说Crossing被用在父母已知的情况下。For example, modern DNA techniques have shown that Cabernet Sauvignon was a crossing of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc. Some well-known modern crosses include Müller

Answer 175

For viticulturalists, a hybrid is a vine whose parents come from two different species of Vitis是由不同的葡萄种类杂交的（比如欧亚葡萄与山葡萄杂交） which may or may not include V. vinifera.

Answer 176

Not only to protect against Phylloxera, as more and more specialised rootstock hybrids are developed, it is becoming clear that their use can confer授予other advantages to the viticulturalist: Rootstocks can be used to protect against nematodes线虫, provide better resistance to drought conditions and soil salinity更好地抗干旱和土壤盐分, as well as control the vigour of the V. vinifera part of the plant控制葡萄部分的活力. They are still frequently used for the other advantages they offer despite the extra cost in planting grafted rather than ungrafted vines.

Answer 177

Grafting is the technique used to join a hybrid rootstock to a V. vinifera variety. Grafting used to be a very labour-intensive operation but the most popular modern technique, called bench-grafting, is now a fully automated process carried out by specialist plant nurseries.现在是由专业植物苗圃进行的完全自动化的过程。For this technique a short section of cane is cut from a rootstock variety and another section of cane of identical diameter直径相同的is cut from a V. vinifera variety. The two canes are spliced拼接together by machine and stored in a warm humid environment so that the wound can heal愈合and form a callus愈伤组织. At this point any roots on the scion接穗(V. vinifera part) or shoots on the rootstock are trimmed off这时任何欧亚葡萄部分的根部以及北美葡萄的枝都会被修剪掉. The vines can be planted straight away or kept in cold store for up to a year until ready for use.

Answer 178

There is another form of grafting called head-grafting that is used if the grower with an established vineyard needs to switch to another variety from one season to the next. *Advantages for head-grafting: It takes a newly planted vine a minimum of three years to be able to produce a commercial crop, but 1) this technique can allow the grower to rapidly accommodate changes in the market.正常重新种植一个新品种需要至少三年时间才能收获果实，但是这个技术可以让种植者更快得到结果) 2) It is also considerably cheaper than replanting the whole vineyard and the new variety can enjoy the benefits of an established root system. (The existing vine is cut back so that only the trunk remains and either a bud or a cutting from the new variety is grafted onto the trunk. If the graft is successful the vine will produce the new fruit at the next vintage although care must be taken to remove any shoots from the original variety that might otherwise take over.)

Answer 179

In order to ripen grapes successfully the vine needs the average temperature in the growing season to be between about 16°C and 21°C. If the temperature is below 10°C it is too cold for the vine's cells to function. This is why vines are dormant in winter. As long as there is enough water for photosynthesis, the vine's activity, including photosynthesis, will increase with the temperature until it reaches in excess of 22°C. Above this temperature, the vine's cells start to consume more sugar than photosynthesis can produce. As temperatures increase beyond this temperature, all vine activity will slow and eventually stop, even with sufficient water. This is why in hot drought conditions grapes can fail to ripen. Extreme heat and insufficient water can weaken and kill vines. 在葡萄生长季节最理想的平均温度在16-21摄氏度。如果温度不够10度，葡萄细胞将不会工作。但是如果平均温度过高，细胞会吃掉更多的糖分（超过葡萄树光合作用产生的糖），所以如果平均温度超过22摄氏度，葡萄会“营养不良”，这是为什么在过热的产区葡萄有可能不会完好地成熟。如果水分不足或者过热葡萄树甚至会死亡。

Answer 180

If the temperature is cool during ripening, the grapes retain more acid and accumulate less sugar. Black grapes may struggle to reach physiological ripeness and will produce wines that are overly astringent and herbaceous. White varieties can cope in cooler climates because their tannins don't need to ripen and they can produce a balanced wine with higher acid levels. Black varieties require moderate to warm climates that allow them to fully ripen their flavour, colour and tannins.

Answer 181

most vineyards lie between the latitudes of 30° and 50° north and south of the equator. However, factors other than latitude can make an area suitable for viticulture outside these limits. ??Why can grapes be grown at 26 degrees south latitude in Cafayate? Because of its high altitude, the temperature drops (annual temperature drops by about 0.6°C with every 100 metre increase in altitude.)

Answer 182

The Humboldt Current off Chile and the Benguela Current off South Africa cool these regions that might otherwise be too hot for viticulture; the Gulf Stream warms the north west of Europe that might otherwise be too cold.

Answer 183

Fog can help cool an area that may otherwise struggle to produce high-quality grapes. This is a particularly important feature in many top vineyard areas in California as well as Casablanca in Chile.雾可以帮助为可能难以生产优质葡萄的地区降温。这是加州许多顶级葡萄园区以及智利卡萨布兰卡的一个特别重要的特征。

Answer 184

Eg: without the influence of Lake Ontario viticulfure would not be possible in the Niagara Peninsula.

Answer 185

Seas and lakes can moderate the temperature differences between summer and winter, and also the diurnal range. High diurnal range bring cool night help the vine rest and extend the growing season. They also help slow the loss of volatile aromas from the grapes during ripening. Smaller diurnal range offers warm nights accelerate ripening, particularly the production of sugar. *Wines from regions with high diurnal ranges tend to be fresher and more aromatic; *those from regions with smaller diurnal ranges tend to be more full-bodied.

Answer 186

1）Burners燃烧器may be placed throughout the vineyard and lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates movement in the air preventing the cold air from settling and causing the frost. Smudge pots烟熏罐 are a well-known type of burner that also create smoke. The smoke acts as insulation绝缘 keeping ground heat in烟雾起到隔热作用并保持地面热量. 2）Wind machines风力机 are widely deployed in vineyards noted for frosts. The most common form looks like a large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the temperature at ground level above freezing. Some modern wind machines incorporate配有heaters加热器. 3）Sprinklers喷水器may be used to spray water onto the vines. As the water freezes, it releases some latent heat into the plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots喷水到葡萄树上结冰时候会释放热量以保护嫩芽和新枝. 1）Burners燃烧器may be placed throughout the vineyard and lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates movement in the air preventing the cold air from settling and causing the frost. Smudge pots烟熏罐 are a well-known type of burner that also create smoke. The smoke acts as insulation绝缘 keeping ground heat in烟雾起到隔热作用并保持地面热量. 2）Wind machines风力机 are widely deployed in vineyards noted for frosts. The most common form looks like a large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the temperature at ground level above freezing. Some modern wind machines incorporate配有heaters加热器. 3）Sprinklers喷水器may be used to spray water onto the vines. As the water freezes, it releases some latent heat into the plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots喷水到葡萄树上结冰时候会释放热量以保护嫩芽和新枝. 1）Burners燃烧器may be placed throughout the vineyard and lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates movement in the air preventing the cold air from settling and causing the frost. Smudge pots烟熏罐 are a well-known type of burner that also create smoke. The smoke acts as insulation绝缘 keeping ground heat in烟雾起到隔热作用并保持地面热量. 2）Wind machines风力机 are widely deployed in vineyards noted for frosts. The most common form looks like a large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the temperature at ground level above freezing. Some modern wind machines incorporate配有heaters加热器. 3）Sprinklers喷水器may be used to spray water onto the vines. As the water freezes, it releases some latent heat into the plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots喷水到葡萄树上结冰时候会释放热量以保护嫩芽和新枝. 4）Thoughtful vineyard design can also minimise the risk of frosts. Because cold air sinks to the lowest point it can find, it is best to plant vineyards on slopes and avoid depressions in which cold air can collect. Vineyards planted on the middle of the slope are noticeably less at risk from frost damage than low-lying areas.因为冷空气向最低点沉积，所以尽量避免在洼地种葡萄园，而是选择在山坡上。Vines can also be trained high to avoid the worst of the cold air.

Answer 187

Napa Valley close to the Pacific, but has high diurnal range due to the alternation of on-shore and off-shore breezes and the effects of fog.

Answer 188

Low temperature: *If temperatures fall below -20°C (Winter Freeze) then the vine can be seriously damaged or killed. The part of the vine most at risk is the graft callus嫁接愈伤组织. *Spring Frosts occur when cold air below 0°C collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that has settled on surfaces. If this happens to newly burst buds or shoots it kills them. The damage done and the impact on yields can be enormous. High temperature: *Mild Winters or lack of a defined winter can prevent the vine becoming dormant温和的冬季会阻止葡萄树进入冬季休眠. In extreme cases, particularly in subtropical climates, the vine can fall out of its natural annual cycle and may produce more than one crop each year. Its life will be shortened, and the quality of the crop will suffer. 在极端的亚热带葡萄树会脱离自然的年度周期，可能不止生长一茬作物，这样葡萄藤寿命会缩短。Mild winters also mean larger populations of vineyard insect pests survive to attack the vine the following summer温冬还会让虫害存活而在夏季攻击葡萄树. *High Summer Temperatures where there is insufficient water available, the vine may stop ripening the grapes, may shed its leaves and in extreme cases the vine will die会落叶，极端情况下会死亡。

Answer 189

Aspect - A slope's aspect affects the amount of sunlight it receives and steeper slopes benefit more from this effect. Vineyards that face the equator receive the most sunlight. The greater the distance from the equator the weaker the sun's energy so for vineyards that are closest to the poles两极, maximising the sunlight with a favourable aspect is especially important.

Answer 190

1) Flowering and fruit set can both be disrupted by heavy rainfall and this can significantly reduce the number of grapes that are formed. 2) Damp conditions that follow rainfall also encourage fungal infection. 3) Heavy rain shortly before harvest time can cause the berries to swell 膨胀 This dilutes稀释 the flavours in the wine they produce and in extreme cases berries can split, which attracts fungal disease. 开花和坐果都会被降雨干扰，强降雨会令葡萄减产，潮湿环境会滋生霉菌，在采摘前的降雨会令葡萄过度膨胀，从而稀释葡萄酒风味，极端情况会令葡萄裂开感染霉菌。

Answer 191

There are three main techniques: 1) Drip irrigation滴灌 is the most advanced and expensive. Each vine has its own dripper that can be computer controlled to ensure that each vine gets the optimum最佳amount of water. 2） Sprinklers喷灌are still widely used and cheaper than drip irrigation but they waste a lot of water and, like rain, they create damp conditions in the vineyard increasing the risk of disease. If correctly designed, sprinklers can also be used in frost protection. 3） Flood irrigation 漫灌 is very cheap to use but is only possible in vineyards that are flat or very gently sloping and where there is access to large quantities of water需要在平地或者很缓的坡而且需要大量水源, as in Chile and Argentina.

Answer 192

Cool: regions with an average growing season temperature of 16.5°C or below. Moderate: regions with an average growing season temperature of 16.5°C to 18.5°C. Warm: regions with an average growing season temperature of 18.5°C to 21°C. Hot: regions with an average growing season temperature in excess of 21°C. Hot areas are generally unsuitable for viticulture.

Answer 193

The most common symptom症状linked to nutritional deficiency营养缺乏 is chlorosis萎黄病. The leaves turn yellow because they lose chlorophyll叶绿素. The result is reduced photosynthesis, and the quality of the grapes and yield is affected. The most common cause of chlorosis is the inability无力of the vine to gain sufficient iron from the soil. 与营养缺乏相关的最常见症状是萎黄病。叶子变黄是因为失去了叶绿素。其结果是光合作用减少，葡萄的品质和产量受到影响。萎黄病最常见的原因是葡萄藤无法从土壤中获取足够的铁。 This is commonly associated with soils with high limestone content such as those found in Champagne, Burgundy, Rioja and Barolo. The best solution to this problem is to use a rootstock that can tolerate lime soils. 这通常与石灰石含量高的土壤有关，例如香槟、勃艮第、里奥哈和巴罗洛的土壤。解决这个问题的最佳方法是使用能够耐受石灰土的砧木。

Answer 194

Downy Mildew thrives in warm, humid conditions and attacks green parts of the vine, especially young leaves, which can be lost in bad cases. The damage to leaves impedes阻碍grape ripening, leading to unripe flavours. Damage to developing berries reduces yield. *Use Bordeaux mixture, a copper-based spray to protect.

Answer 195

Powdery Mildew likes warm, shady阴凉conditions and also develops on green parts of the vine. It can affect bud development and shoot growth, and when it appears on grapes it can cause them to split. The affected grapes lose their fruity flavours and give wine a mouldy bitter taint发霉的苦味. *was treated with a sulfur-based spray.

Answer 196

Noble Rot is caused by the same fungus that causes Grey Rot. The fungus is called Botrytis cinerea and the name is frequently used as a synonym for Noble Rot. In order to develop as Noble Rot the fungus needs to have its appearance delayed until the grapes are ripe. Its development is encouraged by humid misty mornings followed by warm, sunny days. In these conditions the fungus will puncture the grape skin with microscopic filaments through which water will evaporate. If the conditions are too wet the fungus will spread boo rapidly and cause Grey Rot. If it is too dry the fungus won't develop at all. As Noble Rot develops the evaporation concentrates both the acids and the sugars in the grape.

Answer 197

??Grey Rot likes damp or humid conditions. It can also damage green parts of the vine, but causes the greatest problems when it attacks immature berries最大问题是袭击未成熟的葡萄. It taints污染 flavours, reduces yields, and leads to colour loss in black grapes.

Answer 198

The concept behind biodynamics is that everything in the universe is interconnected and gives off a resonance or ‘vibe’. The interconnectivity of everything even includes celestial bodies like the moon, planets and stars. Biodynamic viticulture is the practice of balancing this resonance between vine, man, earth and stars. Essentially, biodynamics is a holistic view of agriculture. 生物动力学背后的概念是宇宙中的一切都是相互关联的并发出共振或“共鸣”。万物互联，甚至包括月球、行星、恒星等天体。生物动力葡萄栽培是平衡葡萄树、人类、地球和星星之间这种共振的实践。从本质上讲，生物动力学是农业的整体观

Answer 199

Often the word MICROCLIMATE is used to indicate the climate of a particular site, or vineyard, whereas CLIMATE refers to the general climate of a region, or even a country. Some authorities use the words MACROCLIMATE for the regional climate, MESOCLIMATE for the site climate and MICROCLIMATE for the climate within the vine canopy

Answer 200

Biodynamics occur primarily in the vineyard before winemaking even happens. All the various tasks, from planting, pruning, to harvesting, are regulated by a special biodynamic calendar. The calendar was originally devised by the ‘high priestess’ of Biodynamics, Maria Thun, who divided days into four categories: Root, Fruit, Flower and Leaf Days.生物动力学主要发生在酿酒之前的葡萄园中。所有不同的任务，从种植、修剪到收获，都由特殊的生物动力日历调节。该日历最初是由生物动力学的“高级女祭司”玛丽亚·图恩 (Maria Thun) 设计的，她将日子分为四类：根日、果日、花日和叶日

Answer 201

Most notable difference is the amount of added sulfites permitted in the final product. E.U. certified organic wines can contain up to 100mg/l total sulfites for red wines and 150mg/L for white and rose wines. However, USDA certified organic wines, musk skip added sulfites.

Answer 202

They use non-animal fining products like limestone or pea protein to filter the wines or just leave the particles to sink to the bottom of the bottle. They also forego拒绝the use of beeswax to seal bottles and agglomerated corks聚合塞。Vegan winemakers face strict requirements for that fining agents they employ, they still use fining agents. So纯素葡萄酒不都是natural wine, 他们虽然不使用动物澄清剂，但他们仍然会使用非动物澄清剂来澄清（这一点与natural wine完全相悖）。

Answer 203

It’s a more extreme version of natural wine which forbids any winemaker intervention (no added sulfites or other additives, no fining or filtering)

Answer 204

According to USDA(United States Department of Agriculture): the grapes are grown without the use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers合成肥料, and all ingredietns going into these wines, which includes yeast, must be certified organic. No sulfites may be added to these wines, although some that occur naturally are permitted（自然存在的硫是允许的）. Only these wines may display the USDA organic seal. Canada’s standard is close to USDA no sulfites can be used. But in E.U. wines can contain up to 100mg/l total sulfites for red wines and 150mg/L for white and rose wines.

Answer 205

Biodynamic farming is based on the idea that the vineyard is a self-contained ecosystem. The winemakers must work to balance the vineyard’s soil, plants, and animals to achieve harmony. Additionally, they plan each process in the vineyard and cellar according to the lunar calendar. Unlike organic winemaking, the distinction of biodynamic does not change between countries.不像有机酒，生物动力法在不同国家之间没有差别。 Started in the 1920s by Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, biodynamics represent a method of farming based around a specific astronomic calendar代表了一种基于特定天文历法的耕作方法。Each day coincides相符with one of the elements: earth, fire, air and water. Days are organized by fruit days (preferable for grape harvesting), root days (pruning), leaf days (watering) and flower days, where the vineyard should be untouched. Biodynamic practices don’t go solely by this calendar, they use fertilization preparations肥料制剂, one of which involves cow horns filled with compost that are buried in the vineyards, and to be dug up later. Biodynamic wines employ organic practices, as they avoid pesticides and compost, rather than chemical fertilizer. The majority of these wines are, therefore, also organic in practice (but not all Biodynamic wines are organic, as they can contain up to 100 mg/L of added sulfites).

Answer 206

In 1985, Demeter USA was founded, a nonprofit organization dedicated to biodynamic practices in wine. Demeter International represents 45 countries.

Answer 207

These three notions can seem complicated and confusing. However, the core idea behind each of them is simple. In short these are their main similarities and differences. Organic wines are from grapes that have been grown without the use of synthetic chemicals. Organic winemakers avoid using preservatives and synthetic additives. Biodynamic farming is based on the idea that the vineyard is a self-contained ecosystem. The winemakers must work to balance the vineyard’s soil, plants, and animals to achieve harmony. Additionally, they plan each process in the vineyard and cellar according to the lunar calendar. Natural wines are from organically grown grapes. made with minimal intervention from the winemaker. This means that the winemaker avoids adding or removing anything during the vinification.

Answer 208

Low-intervention低干预or natural wines that is fermented spontaneously with native yeast. These wines are largely unmanipulated and contain only trace amounts of added sulfites.这些葡萄酒基本上未经加工，仅含有微量添加的亚硫酸盐。They are neither filtered nor fined, which may contain particulates or appear cloudy. These wines are often not aged in oak. With their lack of sulfites and other non-interventionist factors, these wines may have limited stability and are typically produced in smaller quantities.

Viticulture Flashcards

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