Viticulture Flashcards
France 5 Main Forest for oak production？
France 5 Main Forest for oak production？
Allier, Limousin, Nervers, Troncais, Vosges
What’s the most notable difference between EU. And USDA organic certification?
Most notable difference is the amount of added sulfites permitted in the final product.
E.U. certified organic wines can contain up to 100mg/l total sulfites for red wines and 150mg/L for white and rose wines. However, USDA certified organic wines, musk skip added sulfites.
What is 00 Zero-zero wine?
It’s a more extreme version of natural wine which forbids any winemaker intervention (no added sulfites or other additives, no fining or filtering).
What is Vegan wines?
They use non-animal fining products like limestone or pea protein to filter the wines or just leave the particles to sink to the bottom of the bottle. They also forego拒绝the use of beeswax to seal bottles and agglomerated corks聚合塞。Vegan winemakers face strict requirements for that fining agents they employ, they still use fining agents. So纯素葡萄酒不都是natural wine, 他们虽然不使用动物澄清剂，但他们仍然会使用非动物澄清剂来澄清（这一点与natural wine完全相悖）。
The leading authority on biodynamic wines?
In 1985, Demeter USA was founded, a nonprofit organization dedicated to biodynamic practices in wine. Demeter International represents 45 countries.
What is natural wine?
Low-intervention低干预or natural wines that is fermented spontaneously with native yeast. These wines are largely unmanipulated and contain only trace amounts of added sulfites.这些葡萄酒基本上未经加工，仅含有微量添加的亚硫酸盐。They are neither filtered nor fined, which may contain particulates or appear cloudy.
These wines are often not aged in oak. With their lack of sulfites and other non-interventionist factors, these wines may have limited stability and are typically produced in smaller quantities.
What is an organic wine?
According to USDA(United States Department of Agriculture): the grapes are grown without the use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers合成肥料, and all ingredietns going into these wines, which includes yeast, must be certified organic. No sulfites may be added to these wines, although some that occur naturally are permitted（自然存在的硫是允许的）. Only these wines may display the USDA organic seal. Canada’s standard is close to USDA no sulfites can be used.
*But in E.U. wines can contain up to 100mg(milligram)/l total sulfites for red wines and 150mg/L for white and rose wines.
What is wine sustainablility?
1）Wine sustainability refers to a range of vineyard and wine production practices that are not only ecologically sound but also economically viable and socially responsible.
葡萄酒的可持续发展理念是指一系列葡萄园和葡萄酒生产的实践不仅在生态上是合理的，而且在经济上是可行的，还包括对社会的责任。
2） sustainability may govern (but is not limited to) water usage, energy efficiency, pest and erosion control, the planting of cover crops, the degree of mechanization, planting decisions, and even labor practices. 可持续性可能控制（但不限于）用水、能源效率、害虫和侵蚀控制、覆盖作物的种植、机械化程度、种植决策，甚至劳动实践。
3） Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered a sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy. 害虫综合治理（IPM）被认为是解决杂草、昆虫和疾病问题的可持续方法，可以容忍某些合成产品的有针对性的应用，但限制了它们的总体使用。 通常，IPM 被用作葡萄园从传统葡萄栽培向有机葡萄栽培的过渡，或者它可能是单独的可持续发展理念的一部分。
4） New regional sustainability organizations include VINEA, a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe.新的区域可持续发展组织包括 VINEA，这是一个由瓦拉瓦拉谷葡萄种植者组成的自愿团体，致力于推广全面的、对社会和环境负责的方法。 VINEA 葡萄种植者可能并不完全是有机葡萄种植者，但他们确实按照 LIVE（低投入葡萄栽培和酿酒学，第三方认证系统）规定的标准进行种植，并且葡萄园获得了鲑鱼安全认证。
What is Biodynamic wine?
1）Unlike organic winemaking, the distinction of biodynamic does not change between countries.不像有机酒，生物动力法在不同国家之间没有差别。
2）Started in the 1920s by Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, biodynamics represent a method of farming based around a specific astronomic calendar代表了一种基于特定天文历法的耕作方法。Each day coincides相符with one of the elements: earth, fire, air and water. Days are organized by fruit days (preferable for grape harvesting), root days (pruning), leaf days (watering) and flower days, where the vineyard should be untouched.
Biodynamic also use fertilization preparations肥料制剂from for example fermented herbs, or cow horns filled with compost that are buried in the vineyards, and to be dug up later.
3）Biodynamic wines employ organic practices, as they avoid pesticides and compost, rather than chemical fertilizer. The majority of these wines are, therefore, also organic in practice (but not all Biodynamic wines are organic, as they can contain up to 100 mg/L of added sulfites).
4）Overall, Biodynamics is seeing entire vineyard as one living organism. That includes ensuring the fields, plants, animals, soil, and even the insects are nurtured to support the healthy lifespan寿命 of the entire unit.
Try Roederer Cristal, Ochipintti (Biodynamic)
What Organic, Biodynamic and Natural wines have in common and how do they differ?
1)Organic wines are from grapes that have been grown without the use of synthetic chemicals. According to USDA, no sulfites can be added.
2)Biodynamic farming is based on the idea that the vineyard is a self-contained ecosystem. The winemakers must work to balance the vineyard’s soil, plants, and animals to achieve harmony. Additionally, they plan each process in the vineyard and cellar according to the lunar calendar.
3)Natural wines are from organically grown grapes. made with minimal intervention from the winemaker. This means that the winemaker avoids adding or removing anything during the vinification.
Biodynamic wines employ organic practices, as they avoid pesticides and compost, rather than chemical fertilizer. The majority of these wines are, therefore, also organic in practice (but not all Biodynamic wines are organic, as they can contain up to 100 mg/L of added sulfites).
Life cycle of vineyard?
What is Floraison?
Flowering, May-June, vines bloom, self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization which lead to fruit set自花授粉葡萄树开始受精过程。
What is Nouaison?
Fruit setting, successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set.
What is Veraison?
Grapes begin to ripen, grapes soften and change color, acidity decreases.
When does budbreak happy in Northern hemisphere?
In March or Aril
When does flowering occur? Depending on the climate.
6-13 weeks after the initial budbreak 发芽之后6-13周
What is Surmaturité?
Overripeness: some of the fully ripe grapes are left on the vines and reach over-ripeness.
What is Sulfitage?
An operation that add SO2 into wine to disinfect(杀菌）and stabilize it.
What is Foulage?
破皮Breaking the grape skin in order to release the pulp and release the juice.
What is Pressurage?
Pressing consists of extracting the must (grape juice that is not fermented) from the berries.
What is Soutirage?
Racking: moving wine from one container to another for aeration or clarification, leaving sediment behind.
What is Filtrage?
Filtering: Pass wine through a filter.
What is Collage?
Fining
What is Surmaturité?
Overripeness: some of the fully ripe grapes are left on the vines and reach over-ripeness.
What is Sulfitage?
An operation that add SO2 into wine to disinfect(杀菌）and stabilize it.
What is Foulage?
破皮Breaking the grape skin in order to release the pulp and release the juice.
What is Pressurage?
Pressing consists of extracting the must (grape juice that is not fermented) from the berries.
What is Soutirage?
Racking: moving wine from one container to another for aeration or clarification, leaving sediment behind.
What is Filtrage?
Filtering: Pass wine through a filter.
What is Collage?
Fining
In early spring, what’s the small green clusters called?
Embryo bunches form on the shoots芽 by mi-april 芽上形成胚束
What does “shatter”mean during flowering?
=Coulure落果, During flowering in the spring, wind/rain/cold/frost as well as chemical deficiencies can keep grapevine flowers from being properly fertilized, causing these flowers to drop off the cluster. This dropping of flowers is called coulure. Since each flower is responsible for a grape, the cluster of grapes that eventually forms is loose and missing grapes. If the improperly fertilized flower stays attached, it produces a puny, seedless grape called a “shot” grape. Although the yield is reduced, there is a corresponding benefit—loose clusters that allow for increased air circulation are less susceptible to rot in humid conditions.
由于每朵花负责一颗葡萄，因此最终形成的葡萄串是松散的并且缺少葡萄。 如果受精不当的花朵保持附着状态，就会结出微小的无籽葡萄，称为“射击”葡萄。 虽然产量减少了，但也有相应的好处——松散的簇可以增加空气流通，在潮湿的条件下不易腐烂。
What’s does “coulure” mean?
The non-pollination of some of the blossoms causing the grapes either to fall off or never to develop, is caused by cold or wet weather at flowering time. Although this can greatly reduce the size of the crop, it will not be detrimental有害 to the quality of the other grapes and may improve the quality due to the lower yield.
What does a “shot” grape mean?
If the improperly fertilized flower stays attached, it produces a puny无籽葡萄, seedless grape called a “shot” grape.
What does millerandage成熟不均 mean?
BJ: is another result of cold, wet weather at flowering, causing poor fruit set which prevents some of the berries from developing. There are uneven sizes of grapes in a bunch reducing the yield.
Also known as “hens and chicks母鸡和小鸡,” millerandage is where some grape flowers fail to fertilize. They go on to mature at different rates; some grow ripe and large, while others stay very small and seedless.
落果更像是“胎死腹中”，而成熟不均则可以用“发育不良”来形容。
What does asynchrony mean?
uneven ripening during veraison.
What are the benefits of coulure?
Although the yield is reduced, there is a corresponding benefit—loose clusters that allow for increased air circulation are less susceptible易受影响的 to rot in humid conditions.
What does physiological ripeness mean?
A concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics酚类物质, the condition of the berry and its pulp果肉, and seed lignification种子木质化—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine.
What’s idea annual temprature for vine?
57°F/13.89°C
华氏度(℉)=32+摄氏度(℃)×1.8,摄氏度(℃)=(华氏度(℉)-32)÷1.8
What’s the annual level temperature range for Vines’ growing?
50°F and 68°F(10-20°C)
What’s Winkler Index? What its another name?
1) classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to 适当that temperature—is the California Heat Summation Index, also known as the Winkler Index.
This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days. Degree days are calculated by multiplying相乘the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation：
仅根据温度对气候进行分类并因此推荐适合该温度的品种的一种方法是加州热量总和指数（也称为温克勒指数）。 该等级根据度日数将气候分为五个区域。 度数天数的计算方法是将生长季节（定义为 4 月 1 日至 10 月 31 日）每个月的天数乘以该月超过 50°F/10centigrade 的平均度数。 然后将月份的总数相加即可得出热量总和。比如6月有(30天) X (6月里超过10摄氏度的平均度数)，然后将4月-10月的热量相加得出总和。
2) Also called “California Heat Summation Index”.
What’s the average summer temprature for red grape and white grape for seccessful ripening?
For red grapes 70°F (21.1°C), for white grapes is 66°F(18.89°C).
What’s the bands of latitude纬度 for vines’ growing?
between 30° and 50°
How much rainfall do the vines require to produce an adequate足够的crop?
Approximately 10-30 inches/254-762mm(1inche=25.4mm) of rainfall annually
What happens if the vines receive too little rain or too much rain?
*The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant抗旱植物, but it still requires approximately 10-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop.
*If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening间断成熟 and complete shutdown完全关闭 of the vine if the stress is too severe严重.
What are the disadvantages and advantages of wind?
*Disadvantages: wind, is often a detriment损害 to the vine if it blows persistently hard. At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine破坏 flowering and denude剥夺vines.
*Advantages: wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air.
What does Terroir mean?
The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography地形, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it. Terroir is not only the soil; terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine—factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified放大的 or subsumed归入in the resulting wine.
Please explain what macroclimate, mesoclimate and microclimate mean respectively?
*Macroclimate: Climate of larger area, the regional climate or a country.
Eg: Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence; However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor.
*Mesoclimate: the climate of a particular vineyard.
Eg: La Tâche has a single mesoclimate; However, the largest Grand Cru in Burgundy - Corton has several mesoclimate.
*Microclimate: refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy藤曼树冠.
Eg: Techniques of canopy management, these include winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir. 包括冬季修剪、摘叶、芽定位以及复杂的棚架系统的使用——人类的双手在风土条件中发挥作用。
What is the ideal pH for grapegrowing?
Between the pH of 5.5 and 7.0, the cation rate阳离子率, or ability of grapevines to absorb the nutrients in the soil around them, increases, making more nutrients available and easily digestible for grapevines. It enables them to absorb everything they need to grow properly. Some research also suggests that soils in this range allow grape berries to retain more acidity as they ripen, leading to brighter, more acidic finished wines. In Champagne, Burgundy, and Santorini, growers often attribute the finesse of their wines to the high pH found in calcium-rich soils.
Vines can be mainly classified as which taining methods?What are the differences?
1) Most vines can be classified as either head-trained头部整形法 or cordon-trained主蔓整形法.
2) In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled扭曲over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from从…冒出it each season每个季节都会长出结果实的芽.
3) Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a head.
4) Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all.
5) Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned.
What’s the difference between spur and cane pruning?
1）SPUR pruning is pruning a grapevine leaving short, two bud spurs, evenly spaced and pointing up along each cordon of a grapevine;
2）CANE pruning is much more labour intensive, and involves selecting the two strongest and well formed shoots on either side of a vine, trimmed to a length which has the right number of buds on each side to produce the grape bunches, and these two shoots are then wrapped tightly捆紧, or wound缠绕around the cordon wire to form a cordon cane.
Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups, which are they?
1) Fungal 真菌diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard. Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century. can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications.
2) Bacterial细菌 diseases are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine.
3) Viral病毒 diseases, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines. Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation.
4) Phytoplasma 支原体diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century.
What is phylloxera?
1）An aphid蚜虫that feeds on the roots of vines, is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile.
2）Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera. Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal(many of the Mosel Vineyards, never reached Chile), act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera作为天然屏障，阻止根瘤蚜的传播。
What’s the synonym of Powdery Mildew?
Oidium
What is Powdery Mildew (Oidium)白粉病?
BJ: it’s a fungal disease, originated in the US, it attacks the green parts of the vine and develops white spores孢子which have a powdery appearance. It causes the grapes to split and lose their fruity flavour with a mouldy bitter taint, reduce the yield.
1） Is a Fungal Disease likes warm, shady阴凉conditions and also develops on green parts of the vine.
2） It can affect bud development and shoot growth, and when it appears on grapes it can cause them to split. The affected grapes lose their fruity flavours and give wine a mouldy bitter taint发霉的苦味.
*was treated with a sulfur-based spray.
What’s the synonym of Downy Mildew?
Peronospora
What is Downy毛茸茸 Mildew (Peronospora)霜霉病?
BJ: It’s a fungal disease, (originated US), thrives in warm humid condition. Attacks the green parts of the vine, especially the leaves, and causes them to fall off, causing late ripening, unripe flavours and reduced yields.
*Use Bordeau mixture, copper-based spray.
A Fungal Disease thrives in warm, humid conditions and attacks green parts of the vine, especially young leaves, which can be lost in bad cases. The damage to leaves impedes阻碍grape ripening, leading to unripe flavours. Damage to developing berries reduces yield.
*Use Bordeaux mixture, a copper-based spray to protect.
Noble Rot
1） is caused by the same fungus that causes Grey Rot, which is called Botrytis cinerea a synonym for Noble Rot. In order to develop as Noble Rot the fungus needs to have its appearance when the grapes are ripe. Its development is encouraged by humid misty mornings followed by warm, sunny days. In these conditions the fungus will puncture刺 the grape skin with microscopic filaments微观细丝 through which water will evaporate. If the conditions are too wet the fungus will spread boo rapidly and cause Grey Rot. If it is too dry the fungus won’t develop at all. As Noble Rot develops the evaporation concentrates both the acids and the sugars in the grape.
What’s the synonym of Botrytis Cinerea in French and German?
Pourriture noble, Edelfaule, noble rot.
What is Nematodes线虫?
BJ: are microscopic worms, which ffed on the root of the vine, seriously damaging them, and they also transmit virus. (Treatment is very difficult很难治疗, so prevention is the best cure).
are microscopic 微小worms that attack the roots of vines and in certain instances transmit vine viruses在某些情况下传播藤曼病毒. The root damage can lead to reduced yields and make the vine more susceptible to water and nutrient stress破坏根部导致产量降低而且容易受到缺水缺营养的影响.Treatment is very difficult很难治疗, so prevention is the best cure.所以预防很重要。This involves totally sanitising消毒 the soil before replanting and using resistant rootstocks.
Increasing use of drip-irrigation in Argentina and Chile has led to a dramatic increase in the number of nematodes there. Now many vineyards are being planted with grafted vines, not as a protection against Phylloxera, but rather against nematodes.南美和智利使用滴灌导致线虫极具增加，现在很多采用砖木不是为了预防根瘤蚜而是为了预防线虫。
What is Mealybugs粉虱?
1) There are three Pseudococcus species are about 0.2 inch long, flat, oval shaped椭圆, and have a white waxy covering with wax filaments细丝sticking out from circumference圆周of the body. Longer filaments from the posterior后部 end make these mealybugs appear to have “tails.” 所有三种假球菌属的成虫均长约 0.2 英寸，扁平，椭圆形，具有白色蜡状覆盖物，蜡丝从身体周围伸出。 后端的较长细丝使这些粉虱看起来有“尾巴”。
2) In recent years there have been increases in the number of grape mealybug infestations in the San Joaquin Valley(California) and North Coast and an increase in the incidence of obscure and longtailed mealybugs in Central Coast vineyards. Mealybugs damage grapes by contaminating污染clusters with cottony egg sacs卵囊, larvae幼虫, adults, and honeydew, and transmit grape viruses.
近年来，圣华金河谷和北海岸的葡萄粉虱侵扰数量有所增加，而中央海岸葡萄园中不起眼的长尾粉虱的发病率也有所增加。粉虱通过用棉状卵囊、幼虫、成虫和蜜露污染葡萄串来损害葡萄。这三个物种都可以传播葡萄病毒。
What is the synonym of Black Knot?
Crown Gall
What is Crown Gall (Black Knot节)?
1) It’s a Bacterial Diseases细菌疾病, The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured破裂的,the bacteria invade入侵the trunk.
2) When affected, a vine develops galls瘤状物 on its trunk, which girdle缠绕 and strangle勒死 the vine, withering使枯萎 or killing outright the portions of the vine above.
3) The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood.冠瘿病（黑结）：根癌农杆菌细菌会在多种植物中引起冠瘿病。 当受到影响时，藤蔓会在其树干上长出肿瘤（虫瘿），这些肿瘤会环绕并基本上勒死藤蔓，使藤蔓上面的部分枯萎或完全死亡。 这种细菌在寒冷的气候中繁衍生息，并且系统性地生活在葡萄藤内部。 在冬季结冰期间，当葡萄藤的树干可能破裂时，细菌就会侵入外树干，迅速繁殖并引发疾病的发作。 该疾病通过受细菌感染的接穗传播。
There is little can be done to control the disease.
What is Black Rot?
1) A Fungal Disease, native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s.
2) The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide杀菌sprays.黑腐病原产于北美，随着 1800 年代末抗根瘤蚜砧木的进口，黑腐病传播到了欧洲。这种疾病是由吉尼亚德韦利真菌引起的，起源于藤蔓芽、叶子和浆果上的黑斑。尽管如果不加以控制，产量下降可能会造成灾难性的后果，但这种疾病可以通过喷洒杀菌剂来控制。
What is Bacterial Blight白叶枯病？
1) It’s a Bacterial Diseases细菌疾病, caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks条纹in early spring, and eventually wither and die.
2) Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture.白叶枯病：由黄单胞菌引起，白叶枯病通常会杀死葡萄树的幼芽。 它们在早春出现深棕色条纹，最终枯萎死亡。 这种疾病通过雨水和受损的修剪工具传播，可以通过热水处理和铜喷雾（例如波尔多混合物）来控制。
What is synonym of Black Measles?
Esca
What is the synonym of Esca?
Black Measles
Which are no cure diseases of vines?
Esca, Leafroll virus, Pierce’s Disease, Fanleaf virus, Eutypia(Dead Arm), Flavescence Dorée.
What is Esca (Black Measles黑麻疹)?
BJ: is a fungal disease, which attacks the trunk of the vine and will quickly kill it. It is particularly affecting European vineyards, in France, Spain, Italy and now Germany.10-20 year old vines apear to be more susceptible to this disease and there is currently no cure.
1) A Fungal Disease, one of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, Esca thrives in warmer climates, there is no known control or cure in the world.
2) Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire.
3) Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated加剧 by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning process (shears of careless vineyard workers).埃斯卡病是已知最早的真菌性葡萄树病害之一，它在温暖的气候中生长，但在全世界范围内都存在，并且没有已知的控制或治疗方法。 与其他真菌疾病不同，埃斯卡病是真菌复合体而不是单一生物体的结果。 在年轻的葡萄藤上，这种疾病会削弱生长，影响浆果发育并使叶子变色； 在炎热的天气里，受影响的幼藤可能会突然死亡。 在较老的藤蔓中，这种疾病会影响木材，导致树干和臂的内部软化并从内部腐烂——这种情况导致古罗马人使用感染艾斯卡的树干作为柴火，因为其海绵内部很快着火。 成熟的、感染埃斯卡病毒的葡萄树很少能活过 30 年。 这种疾病会因降雨而加剧，并可通过风或粗心的葡萄园工人的修枝剪传播。
What is Pierce’s Disease?
BJ: It’s a Bacterial disease which will kill vines. Transmitted by the glassy-winged-sharpshooter, make vines incapable to produce chlorophyll叶绿素.
The disease is common in Southern US and Mexico.
No cure.
1) It’s a Bacterial Diseases细菌疾病, most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter玻璃翅神枪手—a leafhopping insect叶跳昆虫 found near citrus orchards and oleander竹夹桃plants.
2) Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, make vines incapable of producing chlorophyll叶绿素and killing it within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks爆发 of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties.
3) There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion.皮尔斯病是由细菌苛养木杆菌引起的，最常见的是由玻璃翅神枪手（一种在柑橘园和夹竹桃植物附近发现的叶跳昆虫）传播的疾病，它是一种祸害，使葡萄藤无法产生叶绿素，并在一到五年内杀死它。 这种疾病在美国南部和墨西哥很常见，但在加利福尼亚州正在稳步向北传播，玻璃翅神枪手的目击和该疾病的爆发在索诺玛县和纳帕县引起了重大警报。 这种疾病既没有治愈方法，也没有化学控制方法，其他国家的当局正在维持严格的检疫以防止其入侵。
What is Leafroll Virus卷叶病毒?
BJ: It’s a viral disease, spread by the mealybug and infected cuttings, the virus causes considerable decrease in yield, delay in ripening, and reduces the quality of wine.
1) It’s a Viral Disease. Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant耀眼的 shades色调 of red and gold in the autumn, reduced yields and delayed ripening.
2) Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealybug粉蝽, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed.卷叶病毒：卷叶病毒是一种由至少九种不同病毒复合体引起的疾病，可能造成世界上多达 60% 的葡萄产量损失。尽管受影响的藤蔓在秋天呈现出耀眼的红色和金色色调，但如此美丽的颜色，再加上叶子特征性的向下卷曲，标志着病毒邪恶的一面：产量减少和成熟延迟。卷叶病毒通过受感染的藤蔓繁殖或通过粉蝽等昆虫媒介传播，目前无法治愈，但不会杀死藤蔓；因此，受感染的藤蔓并不总是被移除。
What is Fanleaf Degeneration/Fanleaf virus扇叶退化?
BJ: Fanleaf virus causes the leavs and shoots to be deformed(resembling fans), with poor fruit set and serious reduction in yield. (transmit by nematodes), no cure.
It’s a Viral Disease. Fanleaf Degeneration, a nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, seriously reduce yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms变形 shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed畸形的, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands黄色带 around the veins叶脉. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished缩短. 扇叶退化是一种由土壤线虫传播的病毒，以受感染的根部为食，会严重降低产量，必须清除受影响的葡萄园。扇叶退化是一种类似疾病的复合体，它会导致枝条生长变形，并导致坐果不良和果粒（无籽）浆果。受感染的藤蔓上的叶子畸形，外观像扇子，并且可能在叶脉周围形成黄色带。葡萄树的生产寿命和冬季耐久性都会缩短。
What are the synonyms of Dead Arm?
Eutypia, Eutypa, Eutipiose, Eutypa Dieback
What is Eutypia/Eutypa Dieback枯萎病?
BJ: is a fungal disease which affects the wood of the vine and causes it to die slowly.
No Cure.
1） A fungal Disease, also called dead arm. The disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds伤口. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted发育不良shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins毒素, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm.
2） This disease has a drastic巨大的effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola, manifests as a similar disease.也称为死臂病，是由 Eutypa lata 真菌引起的。 孢子被雨水携带，通过修剪伤口进入葡萄藤。 这种疾病在地中海气候中很常见，由于影响大量植物，因此很难控制。 当真菌释放毒素时，受感染的藤蔓会出现枝条生长发育不良的情况，最终受感染的藤蔓可能会死亡——即死亡的手臂。 这种疾病对产量有巨大影响，但不会降低作物的质量。 事实上，澳大利亚的达伦贝格 (d’Arenberg) 将死臂对品质的有益影响归因于这种疾病的绰号，并以这种疾病的绰号推销其标志性设拉子 (Shiraz)。 另一种真菌，葡萄拟茎点霉，表现为类似的疾病。
What is Flavescence Dorée葡萄金黄化病?
BJ: It’s a Phytoplasma Diseases, causes the leaves to curl(卷曲) and turn yellow or red depending on the vine variety. This will reduce the yield and may kill young vines. It’s spread by leafhoppers.
1) It’s a Phytoplasma Diseases植原体病, a form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper叶蝉昆虫insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel萎缩. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules脓包and cracks裂纹 to form, and may kill young vines.
2) No cure exists, although insecticides杀虫剂 may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread.是葡萄树黄色的一种形式，于 1949 年首次出现在雅马邑白兰地。叶蝉昆虫和受感染葡萄藤的繁殖会传播这种疾病，最初会延迟发芽并减缓芽的生长，最终导致葡萄串从葡萄藤上脱落，浆果落下。 萎缩。 这种疾病会使叶子变色，导致脓疱和裂缝形成，并可能杀死幼藤。 尽管可以使用杀虫剂来控制叶蝉昆虫数量并延缓其传播，但尚无治愈方法
How many grape varieties are found for winemaking?
5000-10000 varieties
What can Vitis riparia, Vitis rupestris, Vitis berlandieri be used for?
They are native to North America and are rarely used to produce grapes for winemaking. However, they are resistant to the vine pest Phylloxera, which attacks the vine’s roots and so they are used to provide root systems onto which V. vinifera vines are grafted.
What’s a shoot?
Shoots are the new growth a vine produces each year。
What’s nodes?
Along the length of each shoot are a number of regularly spaced bumps疙瘩called nodes节点.
What’s one year old wood/ Cane/ Spur?
One Year Old Wood: Shoots turn woody木质化 during the winter after they have grown. The following spring, they become one year old wood (and the buds that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots).
Every winter the vine is pruned and the one year old wood will either be called a cane or a spur depending on how many buds it is left with.
A cane is long, with eight to fifteen buds whereas
a spur is short and has only two to three buds
Cordon上面的短枝short cane叫Spur,
Spur 或者Cane=one year old wood 上面会长出shoots新枝条（新枝条来年春天木质化之后变成Cane或者spur），而只有shoot上面才会结果vines only produce fruit on shoots——>shoot到一年木质化了之后开始修建prun, 如果长度比较长叫Cane通常拥有8-15个芽buds；如果比较短只有2-3个buds就叫spur。
What’s permanent wood/Cordon?
Permanent Wood - This is wood which is more than one year old.
(In the vineyard the amount of permanent wood is restricted受限制的by pruning. ) The permanent wood is made up of the trunk and the arms of the vine, which are sometimes referred to as cordons.
What’s cuttings and layering?
In order to preserve the unique characteristics of each variety, identical完全相同的copies can be propagated either from cuttings插条繁殖 or by layering压条繁殖.
A cutting is a section taken from a healthy shoot before it has become woody. This is planted, takes root and grows into a new plant.
Layering works by bending a cane down and burying埋入 a section of it in the ground. The buried section will take root and once it has established itself the cane linking it to the original plant is cut.
What does Mass Selection mean?
Traditionally, propagation was achieved by layering or taking cuttings from a wide range of different plants in the vineyard. In this process is called mass selection. (Although this kind of vineyard might have been planted with one grape variety, over time the continual mutations create noticeable variation between the different plants in the vineyard.)
What’s a clone and clonal selection?
Clonal selection is to select a single plant with the most favoured characteristics, clonal work continues at secialist nurseries and research stations.
As each generation of the selected clone grows, cuttings are taken from only the specimens标本that best show the desired characteristics. When an ideal plant is found, it can be propagated commercially and sold to vineyard owners. The population of its cuttings is called a clone.
What’s the advantage for Mass Selection?
In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate排除negative traits through appropriate selection, while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained.可以维持更广泛的遗传多样性。
Explain Crossings?
In viticultural language a crossing is a grape variety whose original ‘parent’ vine was grown from a seed whose parent plants were both V. vinifera.杂交是指一个葡萄品种的母株是由两个酿酒葡萄/欧亚葡萄通过有性繁殖得到的种子长大的（非插条cutting或压条layering).
Although by this definition every vinifera variety is ultimately a crossing, the word is usually used only where the identity of the parents is known. 这样看来好像所有新品种都是杂交的，但是一般来说Crossing被用在父母已知的情况下。For example, modern DNA techniques have shown that Cabernet Sauvignon was a crossing of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc.
Some well-known modern crosses include Müller
Thurgau (Riesling x Madeline Royale) and Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault).
Explain Hybrids?
For viticulturalists, a hybrid is a vine whose parents come from two different species of Vitis是由不同的葡萄种类杂交的（比如欧亚葡萄与山葡萄杂交） which may or may not include V. vinifera.
Nowadays, hybrids are rarely used to produce fruit for winemaking. However, they are still used almost globally for their rootstocks. 但是中国Beichun却是一个在酿酒使用的品种，a Chinese hybrid grape created in the 1950’s in an attempt to find a grape that could survive the extreme cold of a Chinese winter. It is a cross between one of the wild mountain grapes, Vitis Amurensis from Jilin Province, north of North Korea, and Muscat Hamburg. Beichun=Muscat Hamburg x Vitis Amurensis (from Jilin).
What are the benefits of using rootstocks?
Not only to protect against Phylloxera, as more and more specialised rootstock hybrids are developed, it is becoming clear that their use can confer授予other advantages to the viticulturalist: Rootstocks can be used to protect against nematodes线虫, provide better resistance to drought conditions and soil salinity更好地抗干旱和土壤盐分, as well as control the vigour of the V. vinifera part of the plant控制葡萄部分的活力. They are still frequently used for the other advantages they offer despite the extra cost in planting grafted rather than ungrafted vines.
Explain Grafting?
Grafting is the technique used to join a hybrid rootstock to a V. vinifera variety. Grafting used to be a very labour-intensive operation but the most popular modern technique, called bench-grafting, is now a fully automated process carried out by specialist plant nurseries.现在是由专业植物苗圃进行的完全自动化的过程。For this technique a short section of cane is cut from a rootstock variety and another section of cane of identical diameter直径相同的is cut from a V. vinifera variety. The two canes are spliced拼接together by machine and stored in a warm humid environment so that the wound can heal愈合and form a callus愈伤组织. At this point any roots on the scion接穗(V. vinifera part) or shoots on the rootstock are trimmed off这时任何欧亚葡萄部分的根部以及北美葡萄的枝都会被修剪掉. The vines can be planted straight away or kept in cold store for up to a year until ready for use.
Explain head-grafting?
There is another form of grafting called head-grafting that is used if the grower with an established vineyard needs to switch to another variety from one season to the next.
*Advantages for head-grafting: It takes a newly planted vine a minimum of three years to be able to produce a commercial crop, but 1) this technique can allow the grower to rapidly accommodate changes in the market.正常重新种植一个新品种需要至少三年时间才能收获果实，但是这个技术可以让种植者更快得到结果)
2) It is also considerably cheaper than replanting the whole vineyard and the new variety can enjoy the benefits of an established root system. (The existing vine is cut back so that only the trunk remains and either a bud or a cutting from the new variety is grafted onto the trunk. If the graft is successful the vine will produce the new fruit at the next vintage although care must be taken to remove any shoots from the original variety that might otherwise take over.)
What’s the average temperature suitable for grape growing? and why?
In order to ripen grapes successfully the vine needs the average temperature in the growing season to be between about 16°C and 21°C.
If the temperature is below 10°C it is too cold for the vine’s cells to function. This is why vines are dormant in winter. As long as there is enough water for photosynthesis, the vine’s activity, including photosynthesis, will increase with the temperature until it reaches in excess of 22°C.
Above this temperature, the vine’s cells start to consume more sugar than photosynthesis can produce. As temperatures increase beyond this temperature, all vine activity will slow and eventually stop, even with sufficient water. This is why in hot drought conditions grapes can fail to ripen. Extreme heat and insufficient water can weaken and kill vines.
在葡萄生长季节最理想的平均温度在16-21摄氏度。
如果温度不够10度，葡萄细胞将不会工作。但是如果平均温度过高，细胞会吃掉更多的糖分（超过葡萄树光合作用产生的糖），所以如果平均温度超过22摄氏度，葡萄会“营养不良”，这是为什么在过热的产区葡萄有可能不会完好地成熟。如果水分不足或者过热葡萄树甚至会死亡。
In what climates are white grapes and black grapes suitable for growing?
If the temperature is cool during ripening, the grapes retain more acid and accumulate less sugar. Black grapes may struggle to reach physiological ripeness and will produce wines that are overly astringent and herbaceous.
White varieties can cope in cooler climates because their tannins don’t need to ripen and they can produce a balanced wine with higher acid levels. Black varieties require moderate to warm climates that allow them to fully ripen their flavour, colour and tannins.
Why can grapes be grown at 26 degrees south latitude in Cafayate?
Because of its high altitude, the temperature drops (annual temperature drops by about 0.6°C with every 100 metre increase in altitude.)
What’s the range of latitude for vinegrowing?
most vineyards lie between the latitudes of 30° and 50° north and south of the equator. However, factors other than latitude can make an area suitable for viticulture outside these limits.
Give several examples of how ocean currents affect the grape growing climate?
The Humboldt Current off Chile and the Benguela Current off South Africa cool these regions that might otherwise be too hot for viticulture; the Gulf Stream warms the north west of Europe that might otherwise be too cold.
How fog affects vineyards?
Fog can help cool an area that may otherwise struggle to produce high-quality grapes. This is a particularly important feature in many top vineyard areas in California as well as Casablanca in Chile.雾可以帮助为可能难以生产优质葡萄的地区降温。 这是加州许多顶级葡萄园区以及智利卡萨布兰卡的一个特别重要的特征。
How does aspect effect vineyards?
1) Aspect - The direction in which a slope faces is known as its aspect. The vineyards with an aspect facing the equator receive the most heat. In the northern hemisphere south facing slopes get the most warmth whereas in the southern hemisphere it is north facing slopes.
2) This phenomenon is especially important in cool climates where the extra warmth can make the difference between a vine being able to ripen a crop or not.
3) Steeper slopes benefit even more from this effect.This can be seen very clearly in the best vineyards of the Mosel which not only have the most favourable aspect but are also very steep.
Examples of wine-growing areas heavily affected by water?
Eg: without the influence of Lake Ontario viticulfure would not be possible in the Niagara Peninsula.
How Diurnal range/temperature differences between day and night affect wine style?
Seas and lakes can moderate the temperature differences between summer and winter, and also the diurnal range.
High diurnal range bring cool night help the vine rest and extend the growing season. They also help slow the loss of volatile aromas from the grapes during ripening.
Smaller diurnal range offers warm nights accelerate ripening, particularly the production of sugar. *Wines from regions with high diurnal ranges tend to be fresher and more aromatic;
*those from regions with smaller diurnal ranges tend to be more full-bodied.
Can you give an example a region close to sea but has a high diurnal range?
Napa Valley close to the Pacific, but has high diurnal range due to the alternation of on-shore and off-shore breezes and the effects of fog.
The Hazards of frost?
1) If temperatures fall below -20°C (Winter Freeze) then the vine can be seriously damaged or killed. The part of the vine most at risk is the graft callus. In areas at risk from extreme cold, earth can used to cover up and lies protect the callus. In some extremely continental regions, the whole vine is buried over the winter.
2) Spring Frosts occur when cold air below 0°C collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that has settled on surfaces. If this happens to newly burst buds or shoots it kills them. The damage done and the impact on yields can be enormous and in regions that are at risk growers go to great lengths to minimise the risk.
What are the main methods to protect vineyards from frost?
There are four main forms of protection有四种主要的保护形式:
1）Burners燃烧器may be placed throughout the vineyard and lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates movement in the air preventing the cold air from settling and causing the frost. Smudge pots烟熏罐 are a well-known type of burner that also create smoke. The smoke acts as insulation绝缘 keeping ground heat in烟雾起到隔热作用并保持地面热量.
2）Wind machines风力机 are widely deployed in vineyards noted for frosts. The most common form looks like a large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the temperature at ground level above freezing. Some modern wind machines incorporate配有heaters加热器.
3）Sprinklers喷水器may be used to spray water onto the vines. As the water freezes, it releases some latent heat into the plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots喷水到葡萄树上结冰时候会释放热量以保护嫩芽和新枝.
4）Thoughtful vineyard design can also minimise the risk of frosts. Because cold air sinks to the lowest point it can find, it is best to plant vineyards on slopes and avoid depressions in which cold air can collect. Vineyards planted on the middle of the slope are noticeably less at risk from frost damage than low-lying areas.因为冷空气向最低点沉积，所以尽量避免在洼地种葡萄园，而是选择在山坡上。Vines can also be trained high to avoid the worst of the cold air.
What impact will excessive rainfall have on vineyards?
1) Flowering and fruit set can both be disrupted by heavy rainfall and this can significantly reduce the number of grapes that are formed.
2) Damp conditions that follow rainfall also encourage fungal infection.
3) Heavy rain shortly before harvest time can cause the berries to swell 膨胀
This dilutes稀释 the flavours in the wine they produce and in extreme cases berries can split, which attracts fungal disease.
开花和坐果都会被降雨干扰，强降雨会令葡萄减产，潮湿环境会滋生霉菌，在采摘前的降雨会令葡萄过度膨胀，从而稀释葡萄酒风味，极端情况会令葡萄裂开感染霉菌。
What harm do low and high temperatures bring to vineyards?
Low temperature:
*If temperatures fall below -20°C (Winter Freeze) then the vine can be seriously damaged or killed. The part of the vine most at risk is the graft callus嫁接愈伤组织.
*Spring Frosts occur when cold air below 0°C collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that has settled on surfaces. If this happens to newly burst buds or shoots it kills them. The damage done and the impact on yields can be enormous.
High temperature:
*Mild Winters or lack of a defined winter can prevent the vine becoming dormant温和的冬季会阻止葡萄树进入冬季休眠. In extreme cases, particularly in subtropical climates, the vine can fall out of its natural annual cycle and may produce more than one crop each year. Its life will be shortened, and the quality of the crop will suffer. 在极端的亚热带葡萄树会脱离自然的年度周期，可能不止生长一茬作物，这样葡萄藤寿命会缩短。Mild winters also mean larger populations of vineyard insect pests survive to attack the vine the following summer温冬还会让虫害存活而在夏季攻击葡萄树.
*High Summer Temperatures where there is insufficient water available, the vine may stop ripening the grapes, may shed its leaves and in extreme cases the vine will die会落叶，极端情况下会死亡。
What are the main techniques of irrigation?
There are three main techniques:
1) Drip irrigation滴灌 is the most advanced and expensive.
Each vine has its own dripper that can be computer controlled to ensure that each vine gets the optimum最佳amount of water.
2） Sprinklers喷灌are still widely used and cheaper than drip irrigation but they waste a lot of water and, like rain, they create damp conditions in the vineyard increasing the risk of disease. If correctly designed, sprinklers can also be used in frost protection.
3） Flood irrigation 漫灌 is very cheap to use but is only possible in vineyards that are flat or very gently sloping and where there is access to large quantities of water需要在平地或者很缓的坡而且需要大量水源, as in Chile and Argentina
Climate classification?
Cool: regions with an average growing season temperature of 16.5°C or below.
Moderate: regions with an average growing season temperature of 16.5°C to 18.5°C.
Warm: regions with an average growing season temperature of 18.5°C to 21°C.
Hot: regions with an average growing season temperature in excess of 21°C. Hot areas are generally unsuitable for viticulture.
Continental Climate?
These climates have the greatest difference in temperature between the hottest and coldest months and are usually characterised by short summers with a large, rapid temperature drop in autumn. Cool continental climates such as Germany and Champagne are at risk from spring frost and low temperatures throughout the growing season can affect flowering, fruit set and ripening. They are therefore better suited to varieties that bud late and ripen early.
Continental climates are also noted for having very dry summers and so if the temperature is high then irrigation can be necessary.
Maritime Climate?
Maritime climates are characterised by cool to moderate temperatures and a low annual difference between the hottest and coldest months.
Rainfall tends to be evenly spread throughout the year, which helps in moderating the temperature and the light levels. This means, as in the case of Bordeaux, that the growing season can often continue far into autumn, ensuring there is enough warmth in the growing season to ripen Cabernet, which might otherwise struggle to ripen at this latitude. However, the spring and summer rain can be a very significant risk to the flowering, fruit set and the health of the grapes at harvest.
Casks in different regions:
