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Psychology AP > Unit Six: Cognition > Flashcards

Unit Six: Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

Memory

A

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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2
Q

Encoding

A

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning

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3
Q

Storage

A

the process of retaining encoded information over time

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4
Q

Retrieval

A

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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5
Q

Parallel processing

A

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

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6
Q

Connectionism

A

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

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7
Q

Sensory memory

A

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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8
Q

Short-term memory

A

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

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9
Q

Long-term memory

A

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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10
Q

Working memory

A

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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11
Q

Information processing models

A

analogies that compare human memory to a computer’s operations

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12
Q

Explicit memories

A

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

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13
Q

Effortful processing

A

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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14
Q

Automatic processing

A

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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15
Q

Implicit memories

A

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

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16
Q

Iconic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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17
Q

Echoic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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18
Q

Chunking

A

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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19
Q

Mnemonics

A

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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20
Q

Spacing effects

A

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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21
Q

Testing effects

A

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

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22
Q

Shallow processing

A

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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23
Q

Deep processng

A

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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24
Q

Hippocampus and side for visual vs verbal

A

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage-> storage is elsewhere

Visual is right, verbal is left

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25
Q

Role of cerebellum in memory

A

implicit memories created by classical conditioning

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26
Q

Role of basal ganglia in memory

A

procedural memories for skills

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27
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

we do not have conscious memories of our first three years of life (we retain implicit while removing explicit)

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28
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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29
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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30
Q

Recall

A

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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31
Q

Recognition

A

measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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32
Q

Relearning

A

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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33
Q

Priming

A

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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34
Q

Mood-congruent memory

A

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

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35
Q

Serial position effect

A

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first (a primacy effect) items in a list

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36
Q

Atkinson and Shriffrin Theory

A

three types of memory- sensory, short-term, long-term

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37
Q

Central executive

A

handles focus, what we are trying to remember

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38
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

an inability to form new memories

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39
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

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40
Q

Proactive interference

A

prior learning disrupts recall of new information

41
Q

Retroactive interference

A

new learning disrupts recall of old information

42
Q

Positive transfer

A

previously learned information often helps our learning of new information

43
Q

Misinformation effect

A

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

44
Q

Source amnesia

A

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

45
Q

Déjà vu

A

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

46
Q

Cognition

A

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

47
Q

Concept

A

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

48
Q

Prototype

A

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

49
Q

Creativity

A

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

50
Q

Convergent thinking

A

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

51
Q

Divergent thinking

A

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).

52
Q

What kind of thinking does the left parietal lobe do? (Convergent vs Divergent)

A

convergent thinking-IQ

53
Q

What kind of thinking do certain areas of the frontal lobe do? (Convergent vs Divergent)

A

divergent thinking-CQ

54
Q

Five components of creativity (we probably do not need to know this)

A

expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, a creative enviornment

55
Q

Self-reference effect

A

we encode information better when it relates to ourselves

56
Q

Ebbinghaus

A

his forgetting curve of how well he remembered his nonsense syllables dropped quickly, then leveled off-forgetting in initially rapid, then levels off with time

57
Q

Loftus

A

memory studies, misinformation effects, released due to DNA when they were put in from eyewitness

58
Q

Reconsolidation

A

everytime we remember something it changes

59
Q

Algorithm

A

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics

60
Q

Heuristic

A

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

61
Q

Insight

A

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions-temporal lobe

62
Q

Mental set

A

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

63
Q

Confirmation bias

A

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

64
Q

Fixation

A

an inability see a problem from a new perspective

65
Q

Intuition

A

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

66
Q

Tversky and Kahneman

A

representativeness and availability heuristics, decision studies

67
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

68
Q

Availability heuristic

A

judging the likelihood of events based on how mentally available they are

69
Q

Overconfidence

A

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

70
Q

Belief perseverance

A

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

71
Q

Framing

A

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

72
Q

Imagination inflation

A

each time you tell something, you change it; repeatedly imagining nonexistent action and events can create false memory

73
Q

Sternberg

A

five components of creativity

74
Q

Language

A

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

75
Q

Phoneme

A

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

76
Q

Morpheme

A

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

77
Q

Grammer

A

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentence

78
Q

Receptive language

A

the ability to understand what is said to and about yourself

79
Q

Productive language

A

the ability to produce words

80
Q

Babbling stage (age)

A

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

81
Q

One-word stage (age)

A

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

82
Q

Two-word stage (age)

A

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

83
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verb

84
Q

Aphasia

A

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

85
Q

Broca’s area

A

controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

86
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

87
Q

Linguistic determinism, scientist

A

the hypothesis that language determines the way we think, Whorf

88
Q

Bilingual advantage

A

they are more skilled at inhibition attention to irrelevant information, due to inhibiting one of their two languages

89
Q

Semantics

A

meaning from sounds

90
Q

Syntax

A

ordering words into sentences

91
Q

Chomskey

A

no specific language, born to learn any language (we lose this ability), universal grammar (nouns, verbs, adjectives), language acquisition device (any language), critical period

92
Q

Frontal lobe and memory- side for numbers and visual

A

Working memory, left side numbers and right side visual

93
Q

AP-Language mechanics

A

Written rules

94
Q

AP-Language pragmatics

A

Unspoken, words you use for friends vs boss

95
Q

AP-Denotation

A

Dictionary meaning

96
Q

AP-Connotation

A

The general meaning

97
Q

AP-Linguistic competence

A

The ability to produce and understand without hearing the specific sentence before

98
Q

Order the following abilities- recognize differences in sounds+read lips, segment sounds into words, ID household language, three stages, word learning is one per day, recognize simple sentence structures, lose the ability to master any language.
(This is beyond what we will need to do)

A 
Lips~4 mo
Babbling S~4 mo
Sounds into words~7 mo
Simple sentences~7 mo
Household~10 mo
One-Word S~12 mo
One per day~18 mo
Two-Word S~24 mo
Lose bilingualism~7 yrs

Psychology AP (13 decks)

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