Unit Five: Learning

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Question 2

Habituates

Answer 2

make or become accustomed or used to something

Question 3

Associative learning

Answer 3

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Question 4

Stimulus

Answer 4

any event or situation that evokes a response

Question 5

Conditioning

Answer 5

process of learning associations

Question 6

Classical conditioning

Answer 6

we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events

Question 7

Operant conditioning (what we associate)

Answer 7

we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence. Thus we (and other animals) learn to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results

Question 8

Cognitive learning

Answer 8

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Question 9

Observational learning

Answer 9

one form of cognitive learning, lets us learn from others’ experiences

Question 10

Behaviorism

Answer 10

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Question 11

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 11

classical conditioning

Question 12

John B. Watson

Answer 12

psychology should be an objective science based on observable behavior (behaviorism)

Question 13

Neutral stimuli (NS)

Answer 13

events that an animal can see or hear but do not associate with any event

Question 14

Unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 14

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth

Question 15

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 15

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR)

Question 16

Conditioned response (CR)

Answer 16

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS

Question 17

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 17

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

Question 18

Acquisition

Answer 18

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Question 19

Higher-order conditioning

Answer 19

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Question 20

Extinction

Answer 20

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Question 21

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 21

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Question 22

Generalization

Answer 22

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Question 23

Discrimination

Answer 23

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Question 24

Respondent behavior

Answer 24

actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus (such as salivating in response to meat powder and later in response to a tone)

Question 25

Operant conditioning (strengthened/diminished)

Answer 25

operant conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Question 26

Law of effect (scientist)

Answer 26

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Question 27

Operant chamber

Answer 27

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Question 28

Reinforcement

Answer 28

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Question 29

Shaping

Answer 29

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Question 30

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 30

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Question 31

Positive reinforcement

Answer 31

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Question 32

Negative reinforcement

Answer 32

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Question 33

Primary reinforcer

Answer 33

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Question 34

Conditioned reinforcer

Answer 34

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Question 35

Reinforcement schedule

Answer 35

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Question 36

Continuous reinforcement

Answer 36

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Question 37

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Answer 37

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Question 38

Fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 38

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Question 39

Variable-ratio schedule

Answer 39

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Question 40

Fixed-interval schedule

Answer 40

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Question 41

Variable-interval schedule

Answer 41

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Question 42

Punishment

Answer 42

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Question 43

Positive punishment

Answer 43

administer an adverse stimulus (spray of water)

Question 44

Negative punishment

Answer 44

withdraw a rewarding stimulus (take away licence)

Question 45

Biofeedback

Answer 45

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Question 46

John Garcia

Answer 46

radiation rats, rats respond only to a taste that "triggered illness" and can do so after a long delay

Question 47

Instinctive drift

Answer 47

animals trained to do a task (such as pigs returning dollars) will revert to their biologically predisposed patterens, Brelands

Question 48

Expectation

Answer 48

an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur, Rescorla and Wagner

Question 49

Cognitive map

Answer 49

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it, Tolman and Honzik

Question 50

Latent learning

Answer 50

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate

Question 51

Insight

Answer 51

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solution

Question 52

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 52

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Question 53

Overjustification

Answer 53

overuse of bribes—leading people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing

Question 54

Extrinsic motivation

Answer 54

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Question 55

Problem-focused coping

Answer 55

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Question 56

Emotion-focused coping

Answer 56

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

Question 57

Learned helplessness

Answer 57

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated averse events, Seligman

Question 58

External locus of control

Answer 58

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Question 59

Internal locus of control

Answer 59

the perception that you control your own fate

Question 60

Self-control

Answer 60

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Question 61

Modeling

Answer 61

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Question 62

Mirror neurons

Answer 62

frontal lobe (motor neurons) neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Question 63

Bandura

Answer 63

Bobo doll-observational learning

Question 64

Gender role

Answer 64

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

Question 65

Role

Answer 65

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Question 66

Gender identity

Answer 66

our sense of being male or female

Question 67

Social learning theory

Answer 67

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Question 68

Gender typing

Answer 68

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Question 69

Transgender

Answer 69

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex