Unit Nine: Social Psychology Flashcards
Social psychologists
study how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition
Fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
Attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractivenes
Central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Philip Zimbardo
randomly assigned some volunteers to be guards (with uniforms, clubs, and whistles and instructions to enforce certain rules) and others became prisoners, (locked in barren cells and forced to wear humiliating outfits). For a day or two, the volunteers self–consciously “played” their roles. Then the simulation became real—too real. Most guards developed disparaging attitudes, and some devised cruel and degrading routines. One by one, the prisoners broke down, rebelled, or became passively resigned. After only six days, Zimbardo called off the study.
Cognitive dissonance
the tension we experience when we become aware that our attitudes and actions don’t coincide
Cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Self-handicapping
you arrange for a condition that will usually negatively impact your performance, create a situation that gives you an excuse or an out (I only got a bad grade because I did not study, I am great->good grade with no studying,\ either way you win)
The chameleon effect
we are natural mimics, unconsciously imitating others’ expressions, postures, and voice tones
Empathize
to feel what others are feeling
Mood linkage (or contagion)
sharing up and down moods
Conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
Solomon Asch
a participant in what they believe is a study of visual perception arrives in time to take a seat at a table with five other people. The experimenter asks the group to state, one by one, which of three comparison lines is identical to a standard line. Two sets of easy sets of lines pass, but then five others choose a clearly wrong answer and more than a third of the time, they cave in to the group
Normative social influence
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
Social norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior
Informational social influence
influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality
Stanley Milgram
participants were “randomly” assigned “learner” and “teacher”. You teach a list of word pairs. If the learner gives a wrong answer, you deliver a brief electric shock. Each succeeding error moves to a higher voltage. The researcher flips the first switch. You deliver shocks after the first and second wrong answers. If you continue, you hear the learner grunt when you flick the third, fourth, and fifth switches, cry out after the eighth, shout after the tenth, shriek in agony, then refuse to answer. The experimenter pushes you toward the final switch. More than 60 percent complied fully. Even in a new study, when the learner complained of a “slight heart condition,” the results were similar. A full 65 percent of the new teachers obeyed every one of the experimenter’s commands.
Social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
Social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Group polarization
the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
Groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
Minority influence
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
Culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Norm
an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior
Prejudice
an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
Stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
Discrimination (social psych)
in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
Just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
Ingroup
“Us”—people with whom we share a common identity
Outgroup
“Them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
Ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
Scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger (frustration) by providing someone to blame
Other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. (Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.)
Culture shock
we don’t know what is expected or accepted (ex: pace of life)
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy (hostility or means to an end)
Frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression
Social script
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
Unconscious patronization
giving higher ratings and less criticism to black essays (low expectations and inflated praise)
Expect them to fail, lower standards, token person, you are great even when you aren’t that good, look past flaws to exalt them
Mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
Reward theory of attraction
we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, and we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs (proximity, attractiveness, sharing our views)
Passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
Companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
Self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them (give back what we receive)
Social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those needing their help
Conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
Social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
Mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
Self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
Superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension‑Reduction (GRIT)
one side first announces its recognition of mutual interests and its intent to reduce tensions. It then initiates one or more small, conciliatory acts. Without weakening one’s retaliatory capability, this modest beginning opens the door for reciprocity by the other party. Should the enemy respond with hostility, one reciprocates in kind. But so, too, with any conciliatory response.
Diffusion of responsibility
others are just as capable of helping, why should I (feeds into the bystander effect)
