Unit 9 - Social Psychology Flashcards
Attribution Theory
解释了人们如何解释行为的原因——无论是由于内部（个人）因素还是外部（情境）因素。
Disposition
性格（内部）归因
根据个人特征、能力或情感解释行为。
EX: “她之所以能得到 A 的成绩是因为她聪明又努力。”
Attribution Theory
Situational
情境（外部）归因
根据外界影响或环境来解释行为。
EX: “他迟到是因为交通堵塞，而不是因为他不负责任。”
Attribution Theory
Social Schemas
帮助我们组织和解读社会信息的心理框架。
它们影响我们如何感知、记忆和回应他人和社会情况。
Explanatory Style
People have predictable pattern of explaining the Good/Bad
Optimistic
乐观
将失败归咎于外部、可改变的因素
Attributing failures to external, changeable factors
“…I was sick; I’ll do better next time.”
Pessimistic
悲观
Attributing failures to internal, stable factors
“I’m bad at math; I’ll never improve.”
Fundamental attribution error
overestimating internal (disposition) influences and underestimating external (situational) influences when judging the behavior of others
想象一下，艾玛看到她的同事杰克开会迟到了。她立即想到：
“杰克太不负责任、太懒惰了！”
然而，艾玛并不知道杰克实际上是因为一场事故而被困在交通堵塞中。她没有考虑外部情况，而是认为杰克的迟到是由于他的性格所致。
这表明人们经常不考虑外界影响而严厉地评判他人，而他们可能会用外部原因为自己的错误辩解（例如，“我因为交通堵塞而迟到了！”）。
Actor/Observer Bias
我们倾向于将自己的行为归因于情境（外部）因素，而将他人的行为归因于性格（内部）因素。
Locus of Control - Two Types
指的是人们如何看待自己对生活事件的控制。它影响动机、压力和行为。
Self-serving bias
tendency to attribute success to internal (personal) factors and failures to external (situational) factors
Internal Locus of Control
相信一个人的行为决定结果。有这种心态的人认为自己的成功和失败都应由自己负责。
“I got an A because I studied hard.”
External Locus of Control
相信外部因素（运气、命运或其他人）会控制结果。这些人感觉自己缺乏控制力。
“I failed because the teacher made the test too hard.”
The Mere Exposure Effect
对反复接触的事物产生偏爱的倾向
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
当一个人对某种情况或另一个人的期望导致他们采取某种方式行事，以使这些期望成真时，就会发生自我实现的预言。
教师期望与学生表现（皮格马利翁效应）
如果老师认为学生很聪明，他们可能会给予学生更多的关注和鼓励。
学生变得更加自信，学习更加努力，成绩也更好。
然后老师就相信他们一直以来都是对的，这个学生很聪明！
Social Comparison Theory
倾向于根据他人评价自己
Upward Social Comparison
Upward: 与那些被认为更好的人相比
Downward Social Comparison
将自己与某些方面比自己更糟糕的人进行比较。
Relative Deprivation
是指认为自己比别人更差，从而产生挫败感、怨恨和不满情绪。当人们将自己与他们认为处于更好地位的人进行比较并因此感到被剥夺时，就会发生这种情况。
EX：经济差距：如果生活在富裕的社区，即使生活水平不错，人们也可能会感到被剥夺或不太幸运。
Stereotype
a generalized belief about a group of people
Prejudice
a positive or negative (generally negative) attitude formed about others because of their membership in a group
Gender Stereotypes
Overstate or exaggerate gender differences
Men = strong, independent
Women = warm, emotional
Implicit Attitudes
对某个群体的无意识（未意识到）信念或感受
Just-World Hypothesis
倾向于相信好人有好报，坏人有惩罚
In-group Favoritism & Out-group Bias
In-group = “us”; people we share identity with
Out-group = “them”; those different/separate from in-group
EX: “____ High School is ghetto”
Out-group Homogeneity Effect
When a person who is looking at an out-group does not perceive individual differences among members of the group
Homo (same) + Genos (kind)
EX: all jocks are the same…
Scapegoating
blaming an entire outgroup for social or economic frustrations
EX: Hitler blaming Jews for economic problems in Germany
Ethnocentrism
judging a person’s own ethnic, racial, or national group as “correct” or “best”
judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture
The American man is the proper way for a man to dress
In-Group Bias
preference for one’s own group over others
False Consensus Effect
Tendency to think other people share our attitudes more than they actually do
“问题在于他们的家庭不重视教育”——一位老师对其他老师说
Confirmation bias
即人们倾向于通过寻找或解释与他们现有信念一致的信息来处理信息
you thought your original hypothesis was correct, so you kept testing it.
Did you ever test a wrong hypothesis?
Belief Perseverance
即使有相反的证据，我们仍倾向于坚持我们最初的信念
↳ confirmation bias
Cognitive Dissonance
当我们的行为（行动）和态度（信念）不一致时
↳ produces feelings of discomfort (especially when emotionally held)
EX: Jan 6 participants were all innocent - Some shot guns, bear-maced police - Self defense
Social Norms
unwritten rules of behavior in a society or group
Normative
changing behavior to gain approval or avoid rejection (peer pressure)
Informational
adopting others’ behaviors or beliefs because we assume they know better (expert influence)
Elaboration Likelihood Model
explains how attitudes are formed and changed
two distinct routes for information processing
a central route
a peripheral route
Central Route
processing a persuasive message’s content
strength of arguments is important
usually requires motivation and ability to process
Uses logic, facts, and arguments
Peripheral Route
Affected by persuasion cues (confidence, attractiveness, etc.) of person delivering the message
Halo Effect
overall impression (positive or negative) of a person influences how we perceive their specific traits
对一个人的整体印象（正面或负面）会影响我们如何看待他们的具体特征
Foot-in-the-Door Effect
Actions affect attitudes → small action makes later behavior agreeable
It refers to the phenomenon where people who agree to a small request are more likely to comply with a larger request later
Door-in-the-Face Effect
when someone first makes a large request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller request, which the person is then more likely to accept.
Norm of reciprocity
我们应该回报别人给予我们的恩惠Requester abandoned their initial request
↳ I should abandon my initial request
Conformity
adjusting behavior or thinking to align with group norms.
一致性：调整行为或思维以符合群体规范。
Obedience
服从
when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
个人遵循权威人物的直接命令或指令，即使这与他们的个人价值观或道德观相冲突。
Group polarization
when a group supports a decision supported by the majority of the group following a group discussion
Enhances group’s belief
想象一下一群朋友在讨论社交媒体。起初，他们对其影响有些担忧。但随着他们不断讨论，他们互相强化了彼此的想法，最终坚信社交媒体完全有害，应该被禁止。
Group Think
对和谐/一致的渴望超越了逻辑决策
↳ rather than defend own ideas, just go along with group
↳ bad group decisions
Bystander Effect
旁观者效应是指当其他人在场时，个人不太可能向受害者提供帮助的现象。旁观者的数量越多，任何一个人干预的可能性就越小。
Diffusion of responsibility
指当其他人在场时，个人倾向于减少采取行动的个人责任。这种心理现象的发生是因为人们认为其他人会介入，从而导致帮助的可能性降低。
Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.
个人在团体工作时往往比单独工作时付出的努力更少。
Deindividuation
去个体化
在增加兴奋感和匿名性的群体场合中，自我意识和自我克制的丧失。
Social facilitation
人们在其他人面前往往能更好地完成简单或已学会的任务。
Social inhibition
抑制
当其他人在场时，人们在执行新任务或困难任务时表现往往会更差。
Social Traps
个人或团体追求短期自身利益，导致对每个人产生长期负面影响的情况。
例如：过度捕捞——每个人都从捕捞更多鱼中受益，但如果每个人都过度捕捞，资源就会枯竭。
Superordinate Goal
共同目标要求各团体之间合作，否则可能会发生冲突。
有助于减少偏见并鼓励团队合作。
例如：两个竞争对手运动队共同努力为慈善事业筹集资金。
Prisoner’s Dilemma
在这种情况下，两个人必须在合作或自身利益之间做出选择，其中最好的个人结果是背叛，但最好的集体结果是合作。
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology
心理学的一个分支，将心理学原理应用于工作场所，以提高生产力、员工满意度和组织效率。
Altruism
利他主义
无私地关心他人的福祉，即使要付出个人代价。
例如：向陌生人捐赠肾脏或帮助有需要的人而不寻求认可。
Social Reciprocity Norm
Definition: The expectation that we should help those who have helped us.
Helping creates a cycle where kindness is returned
例子：如果同事在某个项目上给你提供帮助，你会觉得有义务在将来协助他们。
Social Responsibility Norm
定义：人们期望帮助那些依赖他们的人，即使代价高昂，也不期望得到回报。
关键思想：这一规范适用于帮助弱势群体，如儿童、老人或处于危机中的人。
