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Bio > Unit 8 Study > Flashcards

Unit 8 Study Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

ANS stands for?

A

Autonomic nervous system.

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2
Q

ANS is divided into what two divisions?

A

Sympathetic division and parasympathetic division.

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3
Q

ANS is defined as?

A

Homeostasis is a dynamic balance between the autonomic branches.

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4
Q

What are the four dominating functions of the parasympathetic and two sympathetic autonomic nervous system divisions?

A

Parasympathetic division, rest, digest and conserves energy/replenishes nutrients. Sympathetic division, flight or fight.

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5
Q

They innervate the whole body and control what parts?

A

Cardiac Muscle(motor control), smooth muscle(motor control) and glands. They have functions to regulate homeostasis.

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6
Q

What is the main area ANS comes from?

A

Mainly spinal cord, some from the brain stem.

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7
Q

What are the two neurons in the ANS?

A

Preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neuron.

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8
Q

What ganglion is between the preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neuron?

A

Autonomic ganglion.

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9
Q

Adrenal medulla(located in adrenal gland) is a modified _____ ____.

A

Sympathetic ganglion(fight or flight).

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10
Q

Adrenal medulla releases ___ and ___ which makes up adrenaline.

A

Epinephrine(mainly released and sent into blood) and norepinephrine.

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11
Q

The function of adrenaline(epinephrine and norepinephrine) is?

A

Increase heart rate, increase blood pressure and release ATP(be able to fight).

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12
Q

Preganglionic neuron in the sympathetic division releases ___.

A

Acetylcholine(ACh).

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13
Q

The receptor on the postganglionic neuron is called?

A

Nicotinic ACh receptor.

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14
Q

Postganglionic neuron in the sympathetic division releases?

A

Norepinephrine.

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15
Q

Preganglionic neuron in the parasympathetic division releases what neurotransmitter?

A

ACh.

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16
Q

The receptor on the postganglionic neuron in the parasympathetic division is called?

A

Nicotinic ACh receptor.

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17
Q

Postganglionic neuron in the sympathetic division uses ___ receptor and postganglionic neuron in the parasympathetic division uses ___ receptor.

A

Adrenergic receptor and muscarinic receptor.

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18
Q

What are the three important receptors we must know?

A

Nicotinic ACh( ACh), adrenergic(norepinephrine) and muscarinic receptors(ACh).

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19
Q

In the spinal cord motor neurons of ANS are found in what horn and then to what root?

A

Lateral horn(preganglionic neuron cell body), then to ventral root(preganglionic neuron axon).

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20
Q

The postganglionic axon connects to what?

A

The effector organ(cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or gland).

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21
Q

What are the three areas of control of ANS?

A

Hypothalamus(diencephalon), brainstem(original brain) and spinal cord.

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22
Q

What are the structural differences between parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons?

A

Parasympathetic has one long preganglionic neuron and a short postganglionic neuron. Sympathetic has a short preganglionic neuron and a long postganglionic neuron.

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23
Q

Where are the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions mainly residing in the spinal cord?

A

Parasympathetic is mainly in the beginning and end of the spinal cord and contains CN 3, 7 , 9 and 10(cervical and S2-S4). Sympathetic is mainly in the middle of the spinal cord(lateral horns and T1-L2).

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24
Q

What are some functions when the sympathetic nervous system is activated?

A

Pupil dilate, saliva decrease, heart/breathing increase, digestive decrease, constrict urine production, constrict sexual desire, and sweat increase.

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25
Q

What reaction/gland is the only exception of an ACh from the postganglionic neuron to connect to the target cells instead of ACh directly from the preganglionic neuron in the sympathetic pathways?

A

Sweat gland.

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26
Q

What are the two cholinergic receptors?

A

Nicotinic(ion channel) and muscarinic(g-protein carpal receptor).

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27
Q

What are the five adrenergic receptors?

A

Alpha 1 and 2, Beta 1, 2, and 3.

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28
Q

Alpha 1 is in the ___ ___ and will_____(sympathetic).

A

Blood vessel and constrict.

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29
Q

Alpha 2 is in the _____(digestive function) and will facilitate_____.

A

Pancreas, and blood clotting.

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30
Q

Beta 1 is in the _____ and will increase_____(sympathetic).

A

Heart, and blood pressure.

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31
Q

Beta 2 is in the _____ and it will be _____(sympathetic).

A

Brancia(airway), and dilation.

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32
Q

Beta 3 is in the ______ and will _____.

A

Adipose tissue releases stored energy into glucose(lipolysis).

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33
Q

What is the antagonist for muscarinic receptors?

A

Atropine(inhibits ACh/blocks parasympathetic).

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34
Q

What is the antagonist for B1 receptors?

A

(inhibits EP1 and NE).

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35
Q

What is dual innervation?

A

When parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers innervate and have antagonistic effects.

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36
Q

What is tone?

A

Result of partial activity(some stimulation).

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37
Q

What is an example of a sympathetic tone?

A

Smooth muscles of blood vessels(more constriction). This is regulated by an increase or decrease in activity of parasympathetic tone.

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38
Q

What is an example of a parenthetical tone?

A

Resting heart rate. This is caused by an increase or decrease of parasympathetic tone(activity).

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39
Q

What is stimulus?

A

Change detected by the body from external or internal environment.

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40
Q

What is a sensory receptor?

A

Structure in the body that detects specific stimuli.

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41
Q

_____ potential is able to change in greater or lesser amounts due to the response to a stimulus.

A

Graded.

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42
Q

What are the steps of sensory transduction?

A

Stimulus energy(light, sound), receptor potential(graded potential) and action potential.

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43
Q

_____ sense is what covers your whole body.

A

General senses.

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44
Q

What is an example of a big input in general sense?

A

Skin.

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45
Q

What are the two senses for internal and external general senses?

A

Somatic sense(skin) and visceral sense(organ).

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46
Q

_____ sense is what covers your head.

A

Special sense.

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47
Q

What are examples of inputs in a special sense?

A

Visual, auditory, olfactory and gustatory(taste). Aka all complex sensory organs.

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48
Q

What are the three classifications of sensory receptors?

A

Stimulus origin, stimulus detection, and structures.

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49
Q

What are the three divisions of stimulus origin under sensory receptor classifications?

A

Exteroceptors(external), interoceptors(internal), and proprioceptors(joints/muscles/tendons).

50
Q

What are the five divisions of stimulus detection under sensory receptor classifications?

A

Mechanoreceptors(mechanical change/auditory), thermoreceptors(temperature/skin), chemoreceptors(chemical change/olfactory), photoreceptors(light/retina), and nociceptors(pain/skin).

51
Q

What are the two divisions of structure under sensory receptor classifications?

A

Un-encapsulated(free nerve endings) and encapsulated(meissner’s-touch/pacinian-pressure corpuscles).

52
Q

How are sensory receptors able to detect stimulus and transduct it into graded potential?

A

The change of membrane permeability.

53
Q

What are the characteristics of receptor potentials?

A

It is a graded potential, contains depolarization/repolarization, response is determined by stimulus strength, it has no refractory period(can continuously send out stimulus), and has summations(built up effect on receptor potential).

54
Q

Receptor cells generate what potential energy in a two part specialized receptor cell?

A

Graded potentials.

55
Q

The ganglia cells in the two separate receptor cells generate what potential energy?

A

Generates action potential.

56
Q

The specialized receptor cell that contains two separate receptor parts is usually used for what senses?

A

Auditory, gustatory, visual and olfactory.

57
Q

Where is the site of initiation action potentials and where does the direction of propagation of action potential occur?

A

Axon hillock and axon.

58
Q

The receptor cell just generates what potential from physical stimulus?

A

Graded potential.

59
Q

Why can your brain identify a small touch of a mosquito and a bite from a bear?

A

Stimulus coding.

60
Q

How is stimulus coding used to identify small and large touches?

A

Using frequency, how many action potentials per second.

61
Q

The smaller the receptive field is, the better the ____ is.

A

Sensory detection. Better resolution.

62
Q

What is sensory adaptation?

A

Receptor response to a sustained stimulus change. (olfactory ignoring a bad smell after a while aka a decrease of action potentials over time)

63
Q

What is a phasic and tonic receptor?

A

Pasic is a rapid adapting receptor(olfactory) and tonic is a slow adapting neuron(pain receptor).

64
Q

What are labeled lines?

A

Discrete chains of neurons that are in a pathway that runs from receptor to CNS.(sensory neuron → thalamus → cortex for pressure receptor)

65
Q

What is an example of afferent pathway?

A

Muscle stretch receptor to midbrain to somatosensory of cortex.

66
Q

What is the receptive field?

A

Portion of the body where receptors signal one sensory neuron(small or large).

67
Q

A small receptive field means an increase of?

A

Acuity(the ability to discriminate against different stimuli).

68
Q

What and where was the lateral inhibition?

A

It’s a neuronetwork that’s before reaching the cortex. It’s a center neuron between afferent neurons and second order sensory neurons. It inhibits transmission of lower action potentials/stimuli(below the base/threshold line).

69
Q

What is perception?

A

Conscious interpretation of stimuli from sensory receptors.

70
Q

What is pain?

A

Protective mechanics, a conscious awareness of tissue damage. Creates a discomfort pain to prevent repetitive stimulation caused by action.

71
Q

What are the three types of pain receptors?

A

Mechanical, thermal, polymodal nociceptors.

72
Q

What are the three functions to the three types of nociceptors?

A

Mechanical: cutting, crushing, pinching. Thermal: extreme temperatures. Polymodal: All damaging stimuli.

73
Q

Is fast pain myelinated or unmyelinated?

A

Myelinated sharp pains.

74
Q

Are slow pains myelinated or unmyelinated?

A

Torn ligaments are unmyelinated slow pains.

75
Q

What is the specific neurotransmitter for pain?

A

Substance P.

76
Q

Where does the pathway of substance P come from?

A

Between the brain stem and higher brain. The reticular formation(group of nuclei in brainstem) and limbic system will increase alertness and emotional response to pain.

77
Q

Spinothalamic pathway.

A
78
Q

Between what neurons can you close the gate to prevent signal transduction to the cerebral cortex?

A

Neuron 1 and 2. This is called the “gate theory”, epidural is the work of the gate theory.

79
Q

What is the palpebrae?

A

Outer accessory structures to the eye.

80
Q

What is one accessory structure palpebrae?

A

Conjunctiva. Conjunctiva can be broken down into ocular conjunctiva and palpebral conjunctiva.

81
Q

What is the function of the conjunctiva?

A

Small membrane that blockers outer material from coming in.

82
Q

What is the function of the lacrimal apparatus?

A

Tear gland cleans and lubricates the eye.

83
Q

What are the three cranial nerves that move the eye?

A

CN III, CN IV, CN VI.

84
Q

How many muscles under the extrinsic eye muscles are there?

A

Six muscles, 4 rectus and 2 oblique.

85
Q

What are the three layers of the eyeball?

A

Fibrous tunic(outer), vascular tunic(middle), and neural tunic(inner).

86
Q

What are the two structures under the fibrous tunic?

A

Cornea and sclera.

87
Q

What are the 3 structures under the vascular(blood vessels) tunic?

A

Choroid, ciliary body(muscles and processes) and iris.

88
Q

What are the two structures under the neural tunic?

A

Retina and optic nerve.

89
Q

What are the two internal chambers and fluids?

A

Posterior cavity, vitreous humor like jello. Anterior chamber, aqueous humor like liquid.

90
Q

What is the function of the lens?

A

Bends light, focuses light to the center.

91
Q

What is the function of the fovea?

A

Center part of the retina, only contains cones and has high acuity.

92
Q

What are the three layers which contain what cells?

A

First layer, ganglia(action potential), bipolar receptor then photoreceptor.

93
Q

What cells are in between bipolar and ganglion cell layers? Function?

A

Amacrine cell function is the good resolution and causes good contrasts.

94
Q

The photoreceptor layer contains what cells?

A

Rods(black/white) and cones(red/blue/green).

95
Q

What is the fovea centralis?

A

The sharpest vision, all cones no rods.

96
Q

What is the contrast between rods and cones?

A

Rods : low acuity, much convergence, night vision and periphery objects. Cones : High acuity, little convergence, and only in the fovea, color.

97
Q

What are the functions of photopigments?

A

Absorb light.

98
Q

What is phototransduction?

A

Rods responding to dim light.

99
Q

What is the spectrum in nm of visible light?

A

400-700 nm.

100
Q

There are __ kinds of cells and ___ types of layers in the retina.

A

5 and 3.

101
Q

What are the only two cells in the retina that do not contribute to signal transduction?

A

Horizontal and amacrine cells.

102
Q

What is your blind spot?

A

Lies above the optic nerve, called the optic disc.

103
Q

How do rods and cones work?

A

Signal transduction, photopigments inside the rods/cones respond to visible light by dark current. When it is dark they release a lot of second neurotransmitters,when it is dark there is a lot of current. Bipolar receives a lot of neurotransmitters it will release nothing, when it receives nothing it will release a lot of neurotransmitters(hyperpolarization).

104
Q

What is low and high convergence?

A

Low- 1 ganglion cell connects to one bipolar/one cone(high acuity). High - One ganglion connects to multiple bipolar and multiple rods(low acuity).

105
Q

How does the visual pathway work?

A

Retina, optic nerve, chiasm, tract, thalamus and midbrain to cortex.

106
Q

The two different visions from the left and right eye, are used to recreate a ___ vision.

A

3-D vision.

107
Q

What are the two parts to the outer ear?

A

Pinna and acoustic meatus.

108
Q

What is the outer ears function?

A

To collect sound.

109
Q

What are the three parts of the middle ear?

A

Tympanic membrane, ossicles(malleus, incus and stapes), auditory tube(balance pressure).

110
Q

What are the parts to the inner ear?

A

Semicircular canals, cochlea, vestibule

111
Q

What are the functions of the semicircular canals and vestibules?

A

Balancing.

112
Q

What is the function of the cochlea?

A

Auditory.

113
Q

What are the nerves found in the ear?

A

Vestibular branch(balance), cochlear branch(auditory) → vestibulocochlear nerve VIII.

114
Q

What is the function of the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear?

A

It connects to the stapes ossicle, and tightens the stapes. Which in turn will make it less sensitive to vibrations.

115
Q

What are some things that happen to the outer and middle ear when sound is conducted through the canal?

A

Tympanic membrane vibrates, those vibrations are amplified and mechanically move the ossicles.

116
Q

What are some things that happen to the inner ear during sound transmission?

A

Liquid will be pushed in and out of the cochlear(opposite directions). In turn it will bend the hair cells of the organ of cochlea.

117
Q

What are the three parts to the organ of cochlea?

A

Vestibular membrane, basilar membrane and hair cells.

118
Q

After hair cells it turns sound waves from mechanical to ____.

A

Neuronal.

119
Q

Organ of ____ ,____ and ____ are the three sensory receptors in the cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canal.

A

Cochlea, ampullae(vestibule) and sistanelebule.

120
Q

You need air particles to create sound.

A
121
Q

What are the two properties of sound waves?

A

Pitch(tone) and intensity(loudness).

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