unit 5 pt 1 Flashcards
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
memory
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
recognition
a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
relearning
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
encoding
the retention of encoded information over time
storage
the process of getting information out of memory storage
retrival
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
parallel processing
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
sensory memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
short term memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
working memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”
explicit memory
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
effortful processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
automatic processing
retention independent of conscious recollection
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
echoic memory
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
chunking
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
mnemonicsa
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
spacing effect
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
long term memory
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
testing effect
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
shallow processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
deep processing
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
semantic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
episodic memory
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
hippocampus
the neural storage of a long-term memory
memory consolidaton
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
flashbulb memory
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
long term potential
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
priming
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
encoding specificity principle
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
MOOD CONGRUENT theory
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
serial position effect
an inability to form new memories
anterograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
retrograde amnesia
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
retroactive interference
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
repression
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
reconsolidation
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
misinformation effect
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
source amnesia
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
deja vu
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognition
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
creativity
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
convergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
divergent thinking
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
algorithm
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
heuristic
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
insight
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
confirmation bias
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
fixation
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
mental set
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
intuition
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
availability heuristic
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
overconfidence
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
belief perseverance
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
framing
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
language
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
phenome
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
morpheme
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
grammar
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
babbling stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
one word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
two word stage
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—”go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs.
telegraphic speech
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
aphasia
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
brocas area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
wernickes area
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
liguistic determinism
the weaker form of “linguistic relativity”—the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is “relative to” our cultural language).
linguistic influence
