Unit 5 Lecture Flashcards
Define cellular respiration
A series of chemical reactions where the respiratory system allow oxygen into the blood to the delivered to body cells for ATP production
Define inspiration
Describe the movement of air into the lungs
Define expiration
Movement of air out of the lungs
What muscle are embedded between the ribs and help humans breathe very deeply in and out above the normal breathing
Intercostal
In the pulmonary circuit , arteries and arterioles carry what ? Blood
Deoxygenated blood
In the pulmonary circuit venues and veins what blood?
Oxygenated blood
As you breath in through your mouth and or nose air pass through what passage way? Food and liquid also pass through this area
Pharynx
This airway is the most superior part of the lower respiratory tract
Trachea
To ent either the left or right lung air flow must flow through the left or right what ?
Bronchus
What are these? They are small collapsible passageways that are surround by smooth muscle cells. They are transition zone between the main airways and the exchange epithelium of the lungs
Bronchioles
These terminal air safe in the lungs are where oxygen can enter the pulmonary circulation and carbon difusor can leave
Alveoli
What is the main muscle that controls the rate and depth of breathing ? It forms the floor of the thoracic cavity
Diaphragm
There are 2 main types of cells that make up the walls of the terminal sacs in the respiratory system. What type synthesis a chemical surfactant and secrete it to mix with fluid in those air sacks. This mixture makes it easier for these air sacs to expand during breathing
Type 2 pneumocytes
There are two main type of cells that make up the walls of the terminal sacs in the respiratory system. These cells make up the walls of the terminal sacs called ? They are very thin so that gases can diffuse rapidly through them in or out of blood
Type 1 pneumocytes
What kind of gradient does gas, liquid always move down? From high to low?
Pressure gradient
What is Dalton’s law?
Air is a mix of gases, nitrogen, oxygen carbon dixiode as well little water. This gas law is The total pressure exerted by a mixture of those different gases
What does partial pressure refer to?
When physiologist refer to pressure a single gas in mixture we put a “P” in front of the gas abbreviated. The “P” stands for partial pressure
Define Boyles law
The inverse relationship of the thoracic cavity and inside pressure.
As volume in thoracic cavity increased the lungs decrease, the pressure inside will decrease.
Define tidal volume
When looking at an X and Y graph. If you breath quietly, the volume of air that moves during a single inspiration or expiration
After someone takes a normal restful breath there is still a lot of lung volume yet to be used. The lung volume above restful breathing is tapped into during exercises is known as what?
Inspiratory reserve volume
A lung capacity is the sum of two or more lung volumes. The sum of the volumes tidal volume and inspiiratory reserve volume is known as
Inspiratory capacity
Define expiratory reserve volume
If someone does a restful exhale and then forcibly push
What is the volume of air that cannot be exhaled because the larynx, trachea and bronchi can’t completely close?
Residual volume
Define hypoxia
A lack of ATP that’s made from lack of oxygen means there is not enough energy available to maintain homeostasis and cells start to die
Define hypercapnia
Levels of carbon dioxide are above normal
hyper: above
Capnia : carbon dixiode
When oxygenated blood reached a systemic capillary bed, oxygen will diffuse out rid the blood and into body cells, since those body cells contain a Po2 that is (less than or greater than ) the Po2 in oxygenated blood
Less than
At systemic capillaries body cells are producing carbon dioxide through normal cellular respiration. Causing co2 to diffuse into the blood, since it’s levels in these body cells would be (less than or greater than?) the pco2 in blood
Greater than
Since deoxygenated blood has greater Pco2 than oxygenated blood it is slightly (more acidic or more alkaline) than oxygenated blood
More acidic
Each hemoglobin molecules contains four what? They bind to oxygen and contain one iron ion on each
Heme groups
Define cooperative binding
Hemoglobin bind each oxygen molecule progressively increased it affinity for more oxygen
What is carbonic anhydrase
An enzyme that converts co2 and h20 into H+ ions and hco3- .
What substances can allostericslly inhibit hemoglobin?
CO2 & H+
Since area of the body are metabolically active will they be more acidic or more alkaline than place in the body less active. Why?
More acidic , due to the abundance of H+ ions in those living tissues
What kind of relationship is there between metabolic activity and the amount of O2 that hemoblogin drops off at those tissues?
Direct relationship
What are the three places for gas exchange?
Ventilation
External respiration
Internal respiration
Define ventilation
Also known as breathing but the • atmosphere and alveoli
Define external respiration
Between the blood and alveoli
•Alveoli to pulmonary capillaries
Define internal respiration
Between the blood and tissues
•Systemic capillaries to body tissues
How is gas influenced by resistance?
The diameter of the smooth muscle on bronchioles (airway tubes) change diameter and modulate air flow.
What kind of nervous control are the bronchioles under?
Autonomic and local
What anatomy is the conducting zone for the respiratory system?
Nadal cavity, trachea
Where is the upper respiratory tract for the respiratory system
Nadal cavity, tongue, larynx, esophagus and pharynx
Where is the lower tract of the respiratory tract?
Trachea, right & left bronchus, diaphragm and lungs
Of the alveolar cells which type cause gas exchange?
Type 1 alveolar cells
Of the alveolar cells which type secrete surfactant?
Type 2
What is tidal volume
Also known as restful breathing
What law describes the total pressure as a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures (P) of all individual gases
Daltons laws
Which law describes the inverse relationship between pressure & volume of a sealed chamber?
Increased volume decreases pressure.
Increased pressure means decreased volume
Boyles law
What increased during inspiration?
Thoracic volume increases
What decreases and increases during expiration?
Dia
What are two factors affecting lung tissue?
Compliance and elasticity
Define compliance
The ability to stretch
Define elasticity
The ability of lung tissues to return to it’s resting volume when stretching force is released
What are features of healthy lungs?
High elasticity and high compliance
What is carbonic acid equation
H2 co3
What is the bicarbonate equation
HCO3-
What factors affect air flow resistance?
Length of the system
Viscosity of air
Diameter of air way
What are the levels of o2 & co2 for hyperventilation
⬆️ Po2
⬇️ Pco2
What are the levels of o2 & co2 for hypoventilation?
⬆️ Pco2
⬇️ O2
Define ventilation perfusion coupling
control of bronchiole & arteriole diameter to sustain pulmonary perfusion to the same quality of alveolar ventilation
Respiratory alkalosis
Increased pH during hyperventilation
What is respiratory acidosis
When pH is too low comes from hypoventilation
If co2 levels are increased? How do the bronchioles, pulmonary arteriole , arteriole and pre-capillary sphincter respond?
Bronchiole: dilate
Pulmonary arteriole :Constrict
Arteriole and pre-capillary sphincter :dilated
If Pco2 levels are decreased ? How do the bronchioles, pulmonary arteriole , arteriole and pre-capillary sphincter respond?
Bronchiole : constrict
Pulmonary arteriole : dilate
Systemic arteriole and pre-capillary sphincter : constrict
What factors affect the diffusion of co2 & o2
Temperature , solubility and pressure gradient
How does solubility of co2 & o2 differ?
How does temperature affect gas diffusion
⬆️ temp = ⬆️ gas diffusion rate
What are ideal levels of deoxygenated blood for co2& o2 & pH
Po2 ≤ 40mmhg
Pco2 ≥ 46 Maggie
pH: 7.37
What are ideal levels of oxygenated blood for co2& o2 & pH
Po2 =100 mmhg
Pco2= 40 mmhg
pH : 7.4 pH
Define oxyhemoglobin
To gain oxygen
Does co2 & o2 aqueous dissolve well?
No, they need assistance and get it from hemoglobin . However co2 is more soluble than water but both awful at doing so
Story time : oxygen
- Oxygen
- Is dissolved in plasma
- Hemoglobin in RBC bind to oxygen
4.Hb transport from pulmonary system to systemic system - Cells have a low pressure gradient for o2 so Hb released o2 to enter the cells
- O2 dissolved in plasma
- Cells use the o2 for cellular respiration
How many oxygen molecules can bind to one Hb?
4
Define cooperative binding
When Hb exhibits a binding one o2 molecule increased affinity for another o2 molecule
What factors affect Hb-o2 bonding
PCO2
pH
Temperature
2,3 BPG
If there is high, medium and low levels of co2 how does this affect hemoglobin saturation from oxygen
⬇️ co2: ⬆️ Hb saturation
Med :
⬆️ co2 : ⬇️ Hb saturation
If there is high, medium and low levels of pH how does this affect hemoglobin saturation for oxygen
⬆️ pH : ⬆️ Hb saturation
Mid : mid
⬇️ pH : ⬇️ Hb saturation
If there is high, medium and low levels of temperature how does this affect hemoglobin saturation for oxygen
Colder : ⬆️ Hb saturation
3.7 ° c Mid : mid
Hot : ⬇️ Hb saturation
What structure is the temporary holding place for urine
Bladder
What is the anatomy structure that urine passes through after it has been filtered out of the blood
Ureter
What is bean shaped organ that filters waste out of blood.
Kidney
What organ regulates blood pressure,
Kidney
What organ erythrocytes production
Kidney
What organ balances blood pH and blood solute levels
Kidneys
Dirty blood flows into this filtering organ called?
Renal artery
clean blood flow through this organ from the kidney to the heart
Renal vein
the final tube urine will travel through to exit the bladder is called ?
urethra
this organ is composed of two layers. this layer is filtering organ of the urinary system
renal cortex
what is outer portion of the kidney?
renal cortex
this part of the urinary system is the composed of pryamid structres and in portion of the kidney
renal medulla
what is the endocrine grand that sits on top of the eachfiltering organ ?
adrenal gland
where are nephrons mostly located within the filtering organ
renal cortex
what are the microscopic structures in each filtering organ that collect waste from the blood and concentrate it into the urine?
nephrons
what is the glomerulus? function? location ?
a portal system where a capillary networks flows into a second capillary network before returning back to the heart. its the first set capillaries in the nephron where blood flows through
which blood vessel supplies blood flow to the glomerulus?
afferent arteriole
after the blood leaves the glomerulus a second set of blood vessels AKA send the blood to a second set of capillaries.
efferent arteriole
what is this section? its the intail part of the filtering system that receives water and filters solutes from blood
bowmans capsule
after the filtrate leave the glomerulus it enter (what? ) before the loop of henle
proximal convoluted tubule
what section of filtrate goes into this next section that dips into the medulla from the cortex and back
loop of henle
what is the section after the loop of henle that is father from the proximal convoluted tubule
distal convoluted tubule
what is the last compartment that filtrate travels through?
collecting duct
what are they called ? they surround the distal and proximal convulted tubule
peritubular capillaries
what is the capillary network that surrounds the loop of henle?
vasa recta
where does excretion occur within kidney? or nephrons?
at the end of the nephron
define filtration
random movement of fluid that has small dissolved solutes and taken from the blood to the lumen of the nephron
define secretion
the selective removal of toxins and ions H+ & K+ from the blood to the lumen of the nephron
define reabsorption
descripion of the nephron transporting essential materials back into the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
where does reabsorption occur?
every compartment except the bowmans capsule
what process happens exculsively at the glomerulus and bowmans capsule collects the filtrate
filtration
what process happens exclusively at the proximal and distal convoluted tubule?
secretion
when filtration leaves the collecting duct it is referred to urine and destined to what ?
excretion
what is the hormone that modulates water retenetion at the collecting duct if blood pressure is low or osmolarity is high
vasopressin
what hormone is realsed from sensitive stretching endocrine cells ?
Atrial natriuretic peptide
During the descending limb of the loop of henle. What is being reabsorbed?
Water
During the ascending limb of the loop of henle what is being reabsorbed?
Ions, Na, K+, cl-
Are there membrane transporters on the ascending limb of the loop of henle
True
What membrane the inside of the ascending limb of the loop of henle
Apical membrane
What membrane the outside of the ascending limb of the loop of henle
Basolateral membrane
How are ions moving across the apical membrane and back into the blood of the bass recta?
There’s a transporter called the NKCC (na, k, cl co transporter )
What type of transport is the NKCC
Secondary active transport
How is the NKCC secondary active transport?
It’s is sodium driven and takes k & cl- across the apical membrane
How does ions move out of the basal laminar membrane?
There is a sodium potassium pump , another secondary active transport where potassium is dependent at port with cl, channels for K+ and cl- . Positive ions pull cl- out of the basal laminate membrane
What are the channels on the basal lamina members e side?
•Sodium potassium carrier protein
•Potassium chloride carrier proteinSAT
•Potassium channel
• Chloride channel
What are the channels of the apical membrane
NKCC (sodium , potassium chloride cotransporter)
What driving the movement of ions
Sodium concentration gradient
What happens to the ions if you go deeper into the medulla
The filtrate and the interstitial fluid gets more & more concentrated the further into the medulla
What are the counter current mechanisms of the loop of henle
Counter current multiplier system
Counter current exchange system
What is the countercurrent multiplier system
Osmolarity in the loop of henle. filtrate and interstitial fluid will increase as they go deeper into the renal medulla
Why is counter current multiplier system valuable ?
It is important for maximizing the water absorption that occurs later in the collecting duct to minimize valuable water loss
Why can the countercurrent multiplier be a problem?
More solutes are deposited in the renal medulla over time. Causing more and more water to be retained in the kidneys over time , swell and rip.
What is countercurrent exchange system?
Involves the vasa recta.
The blood flow runs opposite direction of the limb of the loop of henle.
Ions diffuse into the blood as the vasa recta and loop of henle a dip deeper into the renal medulla.
Why is the countercurrent exchange system important?
To prevent water and ion accumulation in the renal medulla
What signal molecule is created by a chemical reaction in the blood and will stimulate more vasopressin and aldosterone release . Helps to reabsorb and retain water and solutes in your body when BP is low
Angiotensin
What signal molecule helps to reabsorb and retain water and solutes in your body when BP is low
Angiotensin ll
What hormone is released by the adrenal cortex?
Aldosterone
What signal molecule acts at the collecting duct causing Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion
Aldosterone
What hormone acts upon the afferent arteriole and nephron tubules? It causes less vasopressin and aldosterone release?
Atrial natriuetic peptide
What signal molecule is a neurohormone? Synthesized by the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland into the blood
Vasopressin
This signal molecule is a lipid. Meaning it enters cells and bind to receptors in the cytosol
Definitely Carbaminohemoglobin
When a Hemoglobin binds to co2
What is reduced hemoglobin
When H+ is bound to hemoglobin
What are 4 main ways for the body to have low oxygen levels
• hypoxia hypoxia
• anemic hypoxia
• ischemic hypoxia
• historicism hypoxia
What is hypoxia hypoxia? Causes?
Hypoxia: low oxygen level
Low arterial Po2
Causes : ⬆️ altitude , ⬇️ lung diffusion
What is anemic hypoxia ? Causes?
Anemic : lack of oxygen bind to Hb
⬇️ total amount of o2 bound to hemoglobin
Causes: blood loss, anemia, carbon monoxide poisoning
What is ischemic hypoxia? Causes?
Ischemic :reduced blood flow
Reduced blood flow
Causes: thrombosis, heart failure
What is histotxic hypoxia
Failure to cells to use o2 because cells have been poisoned
Causes: cyanide and other metabolic poisons
What are glomus cells? Located?
In walls of carotid arteries and aorta,
Detect ⬇️ pH or ⬆️ Pco2 in blood or ⬇️ PO2
What are the integrating centers for ventilation?
Medulla oblongata and pons?
What do pons do during ventilation?
Regulate depth and rate
What does the medulla oblongata do during ventilation?
Control the baseline pattern of breathing
What factors affect the rate of diffusion
Pressure gradient
Surface area
Membrane thickness
Diffusion distance
What is the pre-bötzinger complex?
Rhythmic pattern of breathing that’s controlled by a group of neurons
Define emphysema
Destruction of alveoli , low ventilation and elasticity
Define fibrotic lung disease
Alveolar membrane is thickens to slow gas exchange
What is pulmonary edema
There is fluid in the interstitial space between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
Define asthma
Irritation in the airways that cause bronchoconstriction
What do central chemoreceptors detect
Sense H+ and CO2 in CSF
What are the function to the kidneys?
Regulate BP
Maintain Ion and pH
Excretion of waste
Produce hormones
Define micturition
A proceeds that removed urea, uric acid and ammonium
What is the goal of the nephrons?
Elimínate all waste and excess nutrients with as little water loss as possible
Where does secretion occur?
Proximal consulted tubule , distal tubule and collecting duct
What do not pass through the glomerulus? What are allowed?
Formed elements and plasma proteins do not leave the blood.
Small solutes can pass through the glomerulus
Define capillary hydrostatic pressure
Pushes outward against the walls of the capillary
Define colloid osmotic pressure
Osmotic pressure pulling fluid into the capillary
Define bowman’s capsule fluid pressure
Pressure that resists movement of fluid into the capsule
What three pressure affect glomerular filtration rate?
•Capillary hydrostatic pressure
•Colloid osmotic pressure
•Bowman’s capsule fluid pressure
How leaky are glomerular capillary?
Fenestrated, very leaky. A glomerular capillary is part of the renal corpuscle
What are podcytes? Location
They look like foot process that are part of the glomerular filtering mechanism . Part of the podocyte
What are mesangial cells?
The surround capillaries, they alter blood flow through capillaries, secrete cytokines (related to inflammatory response
How many layers are there to the glomerular filter? What are they? In order?
3,
Capillary fenestrations
Glomerular basement
Filtration slits
What do capillary fenestrations do?
Have sized pores that filter cellular elements
What do glomerular basement membrane do
Have an electrical charge that repels plasma proteins
What do filtration slits formed by podocytes do?
They are size openings that limited what solutes move through
What is in the renal corpuscle
Glomerular and bowman’s capsule
We know that there’s three factors that affect glomerular filtration rate. Bowman’s capsule fluid, colloid osmotic pressure and capillary hydrostatic pressure. What affects resistance
The afferent and efferent arterioles
If the afferent arterioles constricts how does this affect urine production . What neurotransmitter and receptor allows this?
Construction = less hydrostatic pressure
Neurotransmitter : norepinephrine
Receptor alpha 1
If the afferent arterioles dilate how does this affect urine production . What neurotransmitter and receptor allows this?
Dilation : ⬆️ hydrostatic pressure ⬆️ GFR
What signal molecule affect the majority of blood vessels? This affect the kidney
Norepinephrine with receptor alpha 1
What is transepitheial transport
Allow small protein , glucose and amino acids use this type of transport. Use of membrane transport or channels on the apical and basolateral membrane
Define paracellular pathway
Transport that is dictated by simple diffusion / osmosis. Certain small ions and H20 squeeze through the junction between two adjacent cells that line the wall of the nephron
What are essential ions being reabsorbed
Sodium , chloride , bicarbonate & potassium
What is being reabsorbed in the proximal tubule?
Essential organic molecule,
Sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, potassium , glucose, amino acid and small proteins
What solutes are being reabsorbed at the ascending limp of the loop
Sodium, potassium and chloride
What is being reasborbed in the distal tubule?
Ions and water
What is being reabsorbed in the collecting duct
Ions and water
By the end of the collecting duct how much of the original filtrate volume has been reabsorbed?
~99%
How is Na reabsorbed? :story
Occurs in the proximal tubule
What is ENaC
Epithelial Na+ channel , transport the Na through the apical membrane
Define primary active transport
Define secondary active transport
Define antiport
When a channel move ions in opposite direction
Define symport
When a carrier protein is moving ions in the same direction
Define Uniport
One solute going through a carrier port
How are small proteins reabsorbed at the proximal tubule?
By trasncytosis
How do amino acids reabsorbed at the proximal tubule?
Co transport with sodium
What are some example of small proteins?
Hormones, neurohormones, blood enzyme
Why is na & water important for fluid and electrolytes
Both affect osmolarity and blood pressure
How does K+ affect fluid & electrolyte homeostasis
It affects resting membrane potential in neurons like muscle and heart muscle
How are H & HCO affect electrolyte homeostasis
They affect pH balance
Define hyperkalemia
To high potassium
Define hypokalemia
Too low potassium
What are the consequences of too much potassium
The resting membrane potential is higher meaning any stimulus that would be subthreshold can trigger and action potential
How it too little potassium be a bad thing?
The resting membrane potential is lower. Causing any stimulus that would reach threshold is now subthreshold and not cause an action potential.
Where does vasopressin perform its job in the nephron?
Distal nephron ( distal tubule & collecting duct)
Where does aldosterone perform its job within the nephron
@ distal nephron (distal tubule and collecting duct)
What happens during high vasopressin level?
Secrete water into the blood vessels
What happens during low vasopressin?
Water stays within the collecting duct to be excreted out
What factors cause vasopressin release
⬇️ Blood volume
⬇️ atrial stretch
⬆️ osmolarity
Angiotensin ll
What do principal cells do?
When stimulated by vasopressin. They become preamble to h20
Allow H20 to travel from the apical
Membrane out the basolateral membrane
What are glandular cells? Location?
Baroreceptors located in the kidney. That release renin (enzyme)
What are macula densa of distal tubule
Osmoreceptors in kidney
What is renin
It comes from granular cells that stimulate ANG 1 in plasma
What is ACE
It’s in the lungs. Angiotensin converting enzyme. That converts angiotensin l into angiotensin ll
