Unit 4 Lecutre Flashcards
What part of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body?
Right atrium
What part of the heart sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs for gas exchange
Right ventricle
What part of the heart receives the oxygenated blood from the lungs
Left atrium
What part of the heart sends the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body?
Left ventricle
What part of the heart is the initial conduit for deoxygenated blood to pass to the lungs?
Pulmonary artery
What part of the heart is the initial conduit for all oxygenated blood to pass through before getting to the rest of the body?
Aorta
What is the one-way valve that connects the top chambers (atrium) to bottom chambers (ventricles)
Atrioventricular valve AKA mitral valve
What one way valves prevent back blood flow from adajecnt vessels when the bottom chambers relax
Semilunar valve
What are intercalated disks
They are complex junctions that hold the cardiac muscle together end to end and consist of interdigitated membranes
What are intercalated disks held by? They provide strength and transfer force to the adjacent cell
Desmosomes.
What part of the myocardial cells allows waves of depolarization of to pass rapidly between cells causing them to contract almost simultaneously
Gap junctions
What myocardial cells makes up ~99% of the heart, they are striated and have both thick and thin filaments organized into sarcomere? They modulate stroke volume
Contractile cells
What’s the specific myocardial cells make up ~1% of the heart, they are special for passing electrical signals around the heart
Conducting cells (autorythmic )
What do veins do?
Category of blood vessels that returns blood to the heart
What do arteries do?
Category of blood vessels that receives blood from the heart ventricles
What are arterioles ?
These Blood vessels are the primary site for vasoconstriction/ vasodilation because they contain large amounts of smooth muscle
What are capillaries?
Blood vessels where gas, nutrients & waste exchange occurs in the body tissues
What do venules do?
These blood vessels receive deoxygenated blood from capillaries
Which circuit of the cardiovascular system conducts deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart (right side of the heart
Pulmonary circuit
What is the systemic circuit?
A circuit in the cardiovascular system that sends oxygenated blood from the heart to the body tissues and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart (left side of the heart
What is stroke volume ?
The amount of blood pumped by one ventricle during a single contraction
What is cardiac output
Total amount volume of blood pumped by one ventricle during a minute
What is frank-starling law?
A concept that the heart must pump all the blood that returns to it & the force of heart contraction is determined by the volume of blood returning to it
What is a cardiac cycle
A term to describe all the electrical and physical events that happen in the heart during 1 contraction - relaxation
What is heart rate?
The number of contraction - relaxation cycles during a minute
What is venous return
The volume of blood entering the heart from the venous circulation at any given moment
The defines the volume of blood left in a ventricle at the end of its contraction phase
End-systolic volume
This defines the maximum amount of blood that a ventricle can hold when it’s fully relaxed
End-diastolic volume
Define systole
The time when a heart chamber atria or ventricle are contracting and pumping blood
Define diastole
The time when a heart chamber (atria or ventricle) are relaxing and filling with blood
What channels are on the Sinoatrial node
If channels
What channels have a funny name? Because they allow both Na+ and K+ ions to pass through. However it’s more permeable to Na+ that causes net depolarization
Na+
What channels off the SA node are open in a dunce at stage 0
Voltage gated ca2+ channel
At the peak of depolarization of a conducting cell, the voltage gated ca+ channels
Define pacemaker potential
slow positive increase that occurs at the beginning of one action potential and end of the other .
What is the resting membrane potential
-90mv
What is the chordae tendineae
They helps support the tricuspid or bicuspid valve to close and not fold the other way
Deoxygenated blood has what? And comes from which circuit?
⬇️o2 pressure
⬆️co2 pressure
Returning from systemic circuit
Why is o2 needed for cardiovascular system?
It’s a nutrient for ATP
Why is co2 in the blood?
It’s a waste made from ATP production
What are the nutrients in blood?
O2, glucose, triglycerides , amino acids
What are the waste in the blood?
C02, nitrogenous waste
Besides the nutrients and waste in blood what else does it have?
Hormones, neurohormones, cytokines( signal molecule for immune cells ) , immunoglobulins (antibodies) , leukocytes, erythrocytes, thrombocytes
All vessels have what types of tissue?
Endothelium
Elastic tissue
Smooth muscle
Fibrous tissue
What type of tissues are in an artery?
Endothelium
Elastic tissue
Smooth muscle
Fibrous tissue
What type of tissue are composed of an arteriole?
Endothelium & smooth muscle
What tissue does a capillary have?
Endothelium
What type of tissue does a venule have?
Endothelium & fibrous tissue
What type of tissue does a vein have?
Endothelium, elastic tissue , smooth muscle or fibrous tissue
Does a vein or artery have more of each tissue type?
Artery
How long does blood cell live?
~ 3 months
What three places have a portal veins systems?
Digestive system , kidneys hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Is a pressure gradient important?
Yes, it’s needed to flow from one place to another
What is plasma
C02 & 02 is dissolved here. It’s the liquid matrix
What’s the steps a blood will go through?
Artery , arteiole, capillary , venues , vein
What are the two systems for venous return?
Muscle pump and respiratory pump
What is a muscle pump?
Skeletal muscle squeeze on a vein with 1 way valves to aid in venous return
What is the respiratory pump?
Pressure fluctuations/ differences in thoracic and abdominal cavities during ventilation aid in venous return
What three main factors that affect blood pressure
Total blood volume , total peripheral resistance , cardiac output
Define total blood volume
It’s mama he’s by the kidneys and the amount of urine they produce.
A direct relationship as blood volume increase so will the pressure inside the network and vice versa
Define TPR total peripheral resistance
The opposition to the flow of blood through vessels due to friction
The more narrow the vessel high the blood pressure
TPR is directly related to pressure in a blood vessel
What things affect total peripheral resistance
• Vessel diameter
Vasoconstriction= ⬆️ resistance
Vasodilation = ⬇️ resistance
Blood viscosity
⬆️ thickness causes ⬆️ resistance
⬆️ water/ plasma ⬇️ resistance
•Vessel length
The longer the vessel the greater the resistance
Define cardiac output
The total amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in one minute
What two subfactors affect cardiac output?
Heart rate : # of heart beats per minute
Stroke volume : volume of blood pumped by one ventricle during a contraction
Cardiac output = SV x HR
What nervous system will change the function of SA node conducting cell?
Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system)
what is endothelium
a thin layer that lines blood vessels and heart
How much blood does a human have?
~5L
What integrating center regulated blood volume?
Urinary system (kidney)
Does Total blood volume affect Blood pressure?
Yes. Increased Blood Volume causes increased Total blood volume
How does vasodilation affect total peripheral resistance
Increased Vasodilation , decreased Total peripheral resistance
How does vasodilation affect TPR
Vasodilation decreasesTPR
What are the subfactors that affect TPR?
Vessel diameter , blood viscosity , vessel length
Of the three subfactors affecting TPR which can change immediately with the correct stimulus
Vessel diameter
Of the three subfactors affecting TPR which can change within minutes to less than an hour
Blood viscosity
Of the three subfactors affecting TPR which can change within a few days or weeks to change
Vessel length
Of the blood vessels which have more smooth muscle?
Arterioles
if there is more water or plasmas does this increase resistance that increases TPR or not?
No. More water or plasma decreases thickness and decreases resistance
Define cardiac out put
Volume of blood pumped by the heart in a time frame. (Usually minute)
Define heart rate
of BPM (cardiac cycle )
Define stroke volume
Volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle in one contraction
How much blood is cycled in a minute
All of it ~5L per minute
What type of effector cells affect heart rate?
Conducting cells @ SA node
What type of effector cells affect stroke volume
Contracting cells
Does the heart need any innervation for the heart to beat?
Nope
What is so special about conducting cells?
• They can generate their own Action potential
• Have very few contractile protein
What is the signal Molecule & receptor for the sympathetic nervous system
Single molecule : Norepinephrine
Receptor : beta 1
What is threshold for autoarythmic cells?
-40 mv
Define pacemaker potential
It sets the pace of the actual action potential
What are funny channels? If
They allow more sodium influx than potassium efflux
They are only open 2/3 of the way during a pacemaker potential
What are the steps for action potential in autorythmic cells?
• During a pace maker potential
• Funny channels open until 2/3 of the way of a pacemaker potential
• in the last 1/3 of a pacemaker potential ca channels open until end of pacemaker potential.
• Another population of calcium channels open to depolarize the conducting cells and close at the tips of the hump
• Potassium channels are slow to open as they are closed.
• when calcium channels close potassium is fully open.
• potassium is slow to closed when the cell reaches a voltage of -60 mv
What is the signal molecule and receptor for the parasympathetic nervous system of the heart
Signal molecule : ACH
Receptor : Muscarnic receptor
What’s the feed back loop for heart rate of the parasympathetic
• parasympathetic neurons sends
• ACH
• to Muscarinic receptors of the autorythmic cells , causing
• increased potassium efflux and decreased ca influx
• Hyperpolarized cell and decreased rate of depolarization
• decreases heart rate
What’s the feedback loop for sympathetic nervous system
• sympathetic neurons send
• NE
• to B1 receptors of autorythmic cells
• increased sodium and calcium influx
• causing increased rate of depolarization
• increased heart rate
Feedback loop for sympathetic nervous system
• decreased blood pressure
• sensed by the baroreceptors of the carotid artery or aorta
• single sent along sensory neurons
• the medulla oblangata
• increased NE release from the sympathetic post ganglionic neurons
• on the conducting cells of the SA node of B1 receptors
• 1,causing increased ca , na channels & If permeability
2, increase heart rate
3, increased rate of depolarization
4, increased cardiac out out
• Response is increased blood pressure
Feedback loop for parasympathetic nervous system
What does the sinoatrial node do?
It is the lead pacemaker(control how fast action potential travels through intermodal pathway) that regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic efferent pathways.
What does the intermodal pathways?
Spread action potentials to all atrium contracting cells through gap junctions
What does the Atrioventicular node do?
It slows dow action potential momentarily and the atria contract
What does the bundle of his do?
Spread the action potential into the ventricles
What do the right & left bundle branches do?
The action potential spreads down either side of the ventricular septum
What do the Prukinjie fibers do?
The action spread to all ventricular contracting cells through gap junctions causing the ventricular to contract from the bottom up
What is happening to the heart in terms of polarization during the P wave
Atria depolarizing
What is happening to the heart in terms of polarization
During the P-Q segment
The atria are contracting / atrial systole
What is happening to the heart in terms of polarization
during the QRS complex?
Ventricles depolarize & atria repolarizing
What is happening to the heart in terms of polarization
during the S-T segment ?
Ventricles contract
What is happening to the heart in terms of polarization
during the T wave?
Ventricular repolarizing
Does the heart have a shit Ton of mitochondria ?
Yes in order to avoid heart fatigue
What do intercalated disk have?
Desmosomes and gap junctions
What is the story of action potential in contractile cells
• voltage gated Na+ channels open quickly from -90mv
• Na + channels become inactive at the peak of depolarizing
• fast potassium channels start to start to open same time as sodium
• potassium channel is fully open when sodium channels are inactive at the peak
• allowing k efflux from the peak to the end of the plateau
• potassium channel close at the end of the plateau
• L-type of Ca+2 channels start to open same time as Na & K
• Ltype of Ca +2 channels open at the beginning of the plateau
• which allow for Ca2+ to influx
• L-type of Ca+2 channels close at the end of the plateau
• k+ efflux to depolarize the contractile cell to RMP
What’s the story for excitation - contraction coupling
• action potential travels down the Transverse tubule
• l-type cat channel is stimulate
• ca influx to stimulate the raynodie channel
• calcium induced calcium release
• calcium signals the troponin to cause contraction
• two ways this diverges now
• calcium can either return to the sarcoplasmic reticulum using ATP active transport
• and
• calcium is sent to the sodium / calcium exchanger pump
• new sodium stimulate sodium potassium pump
• cause potassium to influx
•
How long. Does the refractory period last?
The entire muscle twitch
What creates the refractory period.
Na channels , cause cells to relax fully before contracting again
What are the factors that cause a grade contraction for cardiac muscle cell
• how much ca enter a contractile cell from the interstitial space
• sarcomere length based from the length- tension relationship
What’s the feedback loop for stroke volume of ventricular contractility
• decreased blood pressure
• baroteceptors in the walls of the aorta or carotid artery
• sensory neuron
• medulla oblongata
• increased release of NE from sympathetic Post-Ganglionic neurons
• contracting cells of left ventricle w/ B1 receptors
1) increased L-type channel permeability
2) increased force & speed of contraction
3) increased speed of relaxation
4) increased stroke volume
5) increased cardiac output
• increase blood pressure
Define a pathogen
A disease-causing invader
What is an antigen?
A foreign particle such as molecule, cell that can trigger a immune response
What are single celled organisms that survive and reproduce outside a host of conditions are ideal?
Bacteria
What are not composed of cells, so they are not considered alive. Rather these organism la have a protein coat or capsid as well a additional protective envelope sometimes
Viruses
What type of pathogens are not common in the United States. But they pose a serious health threat else where in the world?
Parasites
Viruses are pathogens. Do they have a DNA or RNA as their genetic material?
Yes
Bacteria are single celled microorganisms susceptible to what?
Antibiotics
What microorganism causes damage to cells DNA and sometimes cause cancer?
Viruses
What is a multicellular organism that invades a host cell and use its resources to reproduce
Parasites
What is the smallest of the three pathogens discussed and cannot reproduce without invading a host cell
Viruses
What microorganisms are not susceptible to antibiotics . But there drugs that can disrupt parts of the replication cycle
Viruses
What microorganism do not package their DNA in a nucleus and typically surround their cell membrane with a protective cell wall?
Bacteria
Define immunity?
The body ability to combat disease-causing microorganisms
What is immunodeficiency disease
If the immune system is weakened or destroyed then you would not be able to fight off infections that you normally could handle
Define innate immunity
A Kind of immunity that is present from birth and is characterized by a nonspecific response to invasion by any potential pathogen
Define adaptive immunity
A kind of immunity that is directed at specific invaders and can vary in magnitude and type depending on a specific pathogen. This type of immunity requires experience with a specific pathogen and “remembers that prior exposure
What is general name for sites in the lymph system where the immune cells form and mature?
Primary lymphoid tissues
What is the general name for lymph structures where mature immune cells interact with pathogens and imitate a response
Secondary lymphoid tissues
What is the two lobes organ located above the heart. This gland produces T lymphocytes
Thymus gland
Where is most of the blood going during rest?
Liver & digest tract, kidney
Where does the blood go if a person uses their skeletal muscle for exercises
Lungs, heart skeletal muscle
Which blood vessels contain smooth blood vessels
Artieris, arterioles and veins
Which blood vessels has the most amount of smooth muscle cells?
Arterioles
What signal molecule bind to what receptor on smooth muscle to constrict
Norepinephrine binds to alpha 1 receptors
What signal molecule bind to what receptor on smooth muscle to dilate
Epinephrine bind to beta 2 receptors
Where does epinephrine come from ?
Total peripheral resistance causes the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla to send epinephrine to beta 2 receptors cause arterioles dilation
What are majority or minority of arteries
Majority artierioels are sent to rest & digest areas
Minority artieroles are sent to fight & flight areas
What’s the feedback loop for total peripheral resistance dilate and constrict
More calcium influx causes what on smooth muscle in artieroles
More calcium = increased constriction
What are the potential feed back loops effectors?
Conducting cells , contracting cells and smooth muscle cells
What are the chemicals for vasoconstriction
Serotonin , vasopressin , angiotensin ll
What are the chemical signals for vasodilation
Bradykinin, o2, co2 , ⬆️ H+ , k ⬆️ + , histamine , natiuretic peptide
What are capillaries sensitive to?
Pre-capillary sphincter muscle are sensitive to Pco2, po2 , glucose , temperature
Define perfusion
Passage of blood 🩸
Define angiogenesis
Birth of blood vessels
What fibrous protein supports capillaries
Basal lámina
What are the two types of capillaries
Continuous capillaries , fenestrated capillaries
What are continuous capillaries
They moderately leaky and have the basal lamina
What are fenestrated capillaries
They’re super duper leaky , found ⬆️ digestive and urinalysis systems.
Define filtration, what causes it , where does it occur?
Water moves out of capillaries , dictated by hydrostatic pressure , occurs at arterioles end of of capillary bed
Define absorption, what causes it , where does it happen?
Water moves into capillaries , it’s dedicated by osmotic pressure , occurs at venous end of capillary bed
What would happen to perfusion if pco2
⬆️?
⬇️?
⬆️ = high perfusion
⬇️ = low perfusion
Direct relationship
What would happen to perfusion if po2
⬆️?
⬇️?
⬆️ = low perfusion
⬇️ = high perfusion
Indirect relationship
What would happen to perfusion if glucose
⬆️?
⬇️?
⬆️ = low perfusion
⬇️ = high perfusion
Indirect relationship
What would happen to perfusion if temperature
⬆️?
⬇️?
⬆️ = high perfusion
⬇️ = low perfusion
Direct relationship
Define transcytosis for capillaries
Combination of endo and exocytosis in the same process to move them across the endothelium
What are the types of transport across the endothelial cells?
Transcytosis or diffusion (of gases, ions , glucose, amino acids)
Define hydrostatic pressure
Pressure pushing water out of the capillaries
Define osmotic pressure
Pull water toward osmotically active solutes
How does edema occur?
• Filtration rate is more than absorption
• inadequate drainage of lymph nodes
Increased hydrostatic pressure causes what vessels?
⬆️ filtration
If hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure what will happen ? Filtration or absorption
Filtration
Is osmotic pressure is higher than hydrostatic pressure what will occur? Filtration or absorption
Absorption
If edema is happening what is greater than what ( filtration less than, more than absorption )
Filtration Greater than absorption
If they’re is a abnormally high amount of plasma proteins what will increased? Filtration , absorption
Filtration
If hypertension is occurs is their abnormal levels of absorption or filtration
Filtration?
Beside the thymus gland what is another area immune cells form and mature?
Bone marrow
What enscapulated lumph structure contains immune cells monitor blood for foreign invaders
Spleen
What encapsulated lymph structures are part of the lymphatic circulation and contain immune cells that screen the lymph fluid for any foreign invaders
Lymph nodes
What are diffuse lymphoid tissue
(cluster) Aggregation in immune cells that appear in smaller organs around the body , including tonsils ⬆️ the mouth and gut associated lymphoid tissues
Define necrosis
Destroy cells
What signal molecule are proteins that are relseased by immune cells that affect growth and activity of other immune cells
Cytokines
What is the technical term for leukocytes
White blood cells
What are granulocytes
Category of white blood cells that include basiphils, mast cells, neutrophils , eosinophils. They have dark bodies that are visible within each of these cells after staining
What is degranulation?
Granulocytws relase enzymes and other molecules that are toxic to invaders from those dark bodies by exocytosis
What are phagocytes
Category of White blood cells that engulf and ingest their targets
What is antigen presenting cells?
A group of white blood cells that engulf pathogens , break them down and display fragments of those foreign proteins ⬆️ their cell membrane to alert the rest of the immune system
What are cytotoxic cells?
3rd functional group of white blood cells will dorectly attack and kill foreign invaders by puncturing their membrane and secreting enzymes which destroys their DNA
What white blood cells is most numerous but only lives for 1-2 days?
Neutrophils
What is the specific white blood cell that is the rarest in the circulation? The release histamine when it detects foreign antigens. They are similar to mast cells which live inside your tissues
Basophils
What type of white blood cells is cytotoxic and destroys invader, especially antibody coated parasites
Eosinophils
What specific white blood cell is phagocytosis and moves through human tissue, looking for invaders? It is also an antigen-presenting cell
Macrophages
What are dendritic cells
Immune cells that present antigen presenting cells and are characterized by long, thin process that resembles neuronal dendrites. They are found ⬆️ the skin and various organs
What are lymphocytes? Their job?
Group of white blood cells. They mediate the acquired immune response of the body. Someone can contain about a trillion of these cells at any given time
What type of cells are part of the innate response to virus infected cells? The induce infected cells to commit suicide and a category of lymphocytes
Natural killer cells
What is apoptosis
Technical term for cell suicide or programmed cell death
What do immune cells secrete to specifically deal with virus infected cells. This signal molecule interferes with viral replication
Interferons
What specialized proteins insert themselves into the cell membrane of pathogens and virus infected cells and form giant pores which caused those infected cells to die
Membrane attack complexes
What specific pathogen secreted antibodies that bind to an invader and tag it for destruction by other immune cells
B lymphocytes
When a B lymphocytes is actively secreting antibodies it’s called?
Plasma cell
They’re are to types of T lymphocytes. Which one attack and destroy a virus infected cell
Eytoxic T cell
What type of lymphocyte is activated by macrophages that present fragment of foreign invaders on their membrane? This type of cell acts as the alarm bell that activates B lymphocytes and other T cells that actually attack the invader
Helper T cells
What is the major histocompatility complexes
They are a family of membrane protein complexes where foreign antigens can be displayed and activate other immune cells
What is MHC class 1
Majority histocompatibility complexes , infected body cells use these to display foreign antigen fragments from pathogens that have infected them
What is MHS class 2
What is a protein capsid?
What do viruses do since they cannot reproduce
They use a host to hijack protein synthesis and nucleic acid replication
What are common dysfunctions of the immune system?
Incorrect responses :autoimmune disease
Overactive responses : common allergies
Lack of response : immunodeficiency diseases
What are the two defenses in the body?
- Physical & chemical barriers
- Immune defenses , innate or acquired immune system
Where are secondary lymphoid tissues stored to mature leukocytes?
Spleen , lymph nodes
Where do leukocytes develop for primary lymphoid tissues
Red bone marrow , thymus gland
Why do lymph nodes swell?
When they detect a pathogen the immune cells in the node activate proliferate and the node swells
Where are macrophages kept within the spleen? What do they do?
Housed In the red pulp. They are innate immune response and older erythrocytes 3-4 months
Where are the lymphocytes houses in the spleen
In the white pulp of the spleen
What are natural killer cells.
They are part of the innate immune response
What are B cells and T cells?
Part of the aquired immune system. To target pathogens in the blood that I’ve been exposed to before
What are the granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils , basophils
What do B lymphocytes do?
Make antibodies. Make pathogens to destroy them
What do neutrophils do?
Ingest bacteria, foreign material, release cytokines (pyrogens)
What do eosinophils do?
Alert during allergic reactions , ingest parasites , release pyrogens
What do basophils do?
Release bradykinin, histamine and heparin, involved in inflamatory response
What the difference between the T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
Tcells: attack inside of cell
B cells : attack outside the cell
What is passive immunity
Transfer of antibodies to an individual from another source such as mother to fetus, injections of antibodies from another source
Active immunity
Immune system is exposed to pathogen or foreign antigen first then forms a new group of memory B and T cells for an acquired immune response that lasts for several decades
Define optimization
Bacteria is tagged with antibodies for phagocytes to find and ingest
How do blood cells develop mean corpuscular volume?
Having low iron, being microcytic and abnormally small
What are these called? When blood is removed from circulation the liver converts remnants of hemoglobin into this colored pigment
Bilirubin
Define thrombus
Blocked blood flow in a undamaged blood vessel and deprive all its tissues vital nutrients
What an anticoagulant
Chemical released by endothelial cells to prevent coagulation to happen
What are albumins
They make up 60% of the total protein content. Most abundant
What are fibrinogen
Proteins that dissolve in the liquid matrix blood and is essential for creating clots after an injury to the vascular system
Define pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell
When cellular elements in blood are descended from a single precursor cell type known
What are colony stimulating factors
A specific signal molecule that stimulate hematopoietic stem cells to grow and turn into different blood cell or white e blood cells
What does aspirin do to help blood?
It thins blood to discourage the platelets to plug and form
What is hemophilia
Coagulation disorder that leads to excessive bleed
