unit 1 test Flashcards
what are the endocrine glands and organs?
- pituitary
- hypothalamus
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- adrenal
- pineal
- pancreas
- ovary
- testis
anterior pituitary
- produces and secretes own hormones
- regulated by hypothalamus and neg. feedback
posterior pituitary
stores and secretes hormones produced by hypothalamus, sent from anterior pituitary
what does the thymus do and why didn’t we see one on our adult models?
the thymus makes WBC called t-cells to help fight diseases and infections. They are mostly made before birth and will last until puberty
define hormone
long-distance chemical signals that interact with target cell receptors.
what does corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulate
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
what does thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulate?
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
what does Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulate
- follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Growth hormone (GH)
- anterior pituitary
- to bone, muscle and organs
- promotes amino acid and protein synthesis
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- anterior pituitary
- thyroid gland
- produce T3 and T4
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- anterior pituitary
- adrenal cortex
- secrete glucocorticoids
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- anterior pituitary
- ovaries and testes
- growth of ovarian follicle and sperm
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- anterior pituitary
- ovaries and testes
- ovulation and testosterone
prolactin (PRL)
- anterior pituitary
- breasts
- milk production
anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
- posterior pituitary
- kidneys
- water retention
oxytocin
- posterior pituitary
- breasts and uterus
hypophyseal-hypothalamic portal system
connect brain to anterior pituitary to release and inhibit hormones
hypersecretion of GH causes?
gigantism
hyposecretion of GH causes?
pituitary dwarfism
hypothyroidism
- weight gain
- iodine deficiency
- cant produce t3 and t4 but thyroid tells it to so thyroid gets bigger
Hyperthyroidism
- weight loss
- autoimmune
- too much thyroid
hyper secretion- Cushings disease
depresses cartilage bone formation and immune system
back of neck
hyposecretion- Addisons disease
deficits of mineralocorticoids, weight loss, dehydration
what are the cardinal signs of diabetes?
- polyuria; urine
- polydipsia; thirst
- polyphagia; hunger
diabetes mellitus
- frequent urination
- type 1; cant produce insulin
- type 2; cant keep up, too much
- gestational; insufficient insulin
diabetes insipidus
- water imbalance within the body
- ADH deficiency due to damage to hypothalamus or posterior pituitary
- head trauma
water soluble hormones
- need receptors
- second messengers; cAMP and PIP2 calcium
lipid soluble hormones
directly bind in the cell and activate genes
steps for cAMP
- bind to receptor
- activate a G protein
- G protein activates adenylate cyclase
- adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
- cAMP activates protein kinases
- phosphorylated proteins are activated or inactivated
- cAMP degenerates phosphodiesterase
steps for PIP2 calcium
- protein G activates phospholipase C
- phospholipase splits PIP2 into diacylglycerol (DAG) or inositol triphosphate (IP3)
- calcium ions act as another messenger
lipid soluble steps?
- receptor hormone complex enters nucleus and binds to DNA
2. initiates DNA transcription
what are the 4 second messengers?
- cAMP
- PIP2 calcium
- DAG
- iP3
how does a hormone know which cells to act on?
target cells- tissues with receptors for a specific hormone
what changes can be caused by a hormonal stimulus?
cellular changes by binding to receptors in target cells
what are the formed elements of blood?
- erythrocytes (RBC)
- leukocytes (WBC)
- platelets (thrombocytes)
what is the blood pH?
7.35-7.45
what is the average blood volume?
5 L
- male: 5-6
- female: 4-5
define hematocrit and how can you increase/decrease it?
- precent of blood volume that is RBC
- you can increase or decrease by EPO
neutrophils
- 3 or more round things
- kill/inhibit the growth of bacteria
eosinophils
- red staining
- eyes or ear mufs
- allerges and parasitic worms
basophils
- purple
- lots of grains
- histamine and heparin
lymphocytes
- big nucleus covering most of the cell
- b and t cells
- immunity
monocytes
- kidney shaped
- macrophages
granulocytes
- larger and shorter lived
- cytoplasmic granules
1. neutrophils
2. eosinophils
3. basophils
Agranulocytes
- lack granules
1. lymphocytes
2. monocytes
wha is EPO?
process of formation of RBC’s that takes about 15 days
what stimulates the production of EPO?
lack of O2
where is EPO produced?
kidney
what are the steps to make a RBC?
- hematopoietic stem cell transforms to myeloidn stem cell
- myeloid transforms to proerythroblast
- proerythroblast divides, into basophilic erythroblasts
- basophilic synthesizes ribosomes which stain blue
- polychromatic erythroblasts synthesize red hemoglobin showing pink and blue
- orthochromatic erythroblasts make concave shape, nucleus degrades
- reticulocytes have small ribosomes
- mature erythrocyte
what is a reticulocyte and why is it important?
they are immature RBC
they help determine the umber of RBC before it leaves
hemorrhagic anemia
rapid blood loss
chronic hemorrhagic anemia
slight but persistent blood loss
iron deficiency anemia
low iron intake, cant synthesize hemoglobin
pernicious anemia
intrinsic factor
renal anemia
lack of EPO
aplastic anemia
destruction or inhibition of red bone marrow
sickle cell anemia
genetic, causes sickling
what is a benefit of sickle cell anemia
prevention of malaria
describe the steps of hemostasis
- vascular spasm; smooth muscle contracts
- platelet plug formation; stick to collagen fibers and release chemicals to make platelets sticky to plug the exposed tissue
- coagulation; blood clotting, replaces platelet plug with fibrin threads
describe the steps of coagulation
- prothrombin activation; intrinsic or extrinsic pathways to get to 10 (X)
- transformation to thrombin; transformation of prothrombin to activate thrombin
- fibrin mesh; converts fibrinogen to fibrin along with Ca2 activates XIII to cross linked fibrin mesh
what is fibrinogen/fibrin?
- a soluble protein from which fibrin is produced by thrombin
- formed from fibrinogen during clotting of blood, makes mesh to stop the blood flow
blood typing
- A: a antigen, cant take B
- B: b antigen, cant take A
- AB: ab antigen, can take anything
- O: no antigen, cant take a or b
Rh pos: Rh antigen, can take anything
Rh neg: no antigen, can only take when seen
antigens
on cell surface to help immune system recognize the cells, what it can receive
antibodies
response to foreign cells, what it cant get
universal donor
O-
universal recipient
AB+
erythroblastosis fetalis
antibodies cross placenta causing hemolysis of fetal RBC’s, when Rh- mother has Rh+ baby
structural characteristics of RBC that make it good for gas transport
- size and shape
- hemoglobin makes p 97% of cell
- no mitochondria
functions of blood
- transport
- regulation
- protection
what may cause a bleeding disorder?
anemia, leukemia
what the the three layers of the heart wall?
- epicardium- visceral
- myocardium- muscle
- endocardium- SS epi.
what are the two different layers of the pericardium?
- fibrous pericardium; protect
2. serous pericardium; parietal and visceral layer
what causes auscultations (heart sounds)?
closing of the valves
describe the 4 phases of contraction
- ventricular filling
- ventricular systole
- isovolumetric relaxation
- isovolumetric contraction
what systole and diastole?
systole- contraction
diastole- relaxiation
p wave
SA- partial depolarization
QRS wave
ventricular depolarization
T wave
ventricular repolarization
similarities between skeletal and cardiac muscle
- depolarizing action potential
- release Ca2+
- excitation contraction with Ca2+
differences between skeletal and cardiac muscle
- pacemaker; automatic
- all together
- extracellular
- tetanic disent occur
- aerobic respiration
what is the importance of Ca2+ in contraction and action potential?
prolonged depolarization
describe the absolute refractory period in the heart
the time where no matter how intense the stimulus is, you can not get another action potential
pericarditis
inflammation of pericardium, friction rubbing together
cardiac tamponade
excess fluid leaking into the pericardial space, compress heart
angina pectoris
thoracic pain by deficiency in blood to myocardium, weak cells
myocardial infraction
heart attack, coronary blocked
what is the fossa ovalis?
depressed structure of right atrium for fetal circulation, we don’t use when older
right atrium
- deoxygenated blood from vena cava from body
- release from pulmonary. artery to lungs
left atrium
- receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary. veins from lungs
- leaves the aorta into the body
what is functional synctium
gap junctions allowing ions to pass
what is preload?
stretching of the muscle cells before contraction, ventricular filling
what is afterload?
load against which the heart has to contract to eject the blood
how to calculate EDV, ESV and SV
SV = EDV - ESV
how to calculate cardiac output (CO)
CO = SV x HR
