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Biology 260 > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Define Microorganism

A

An organism (or virus) too small to be seen without a microscope

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2
Q

In what major classification groups are microorganisms placed?

A

BACTERIA (Domain Bacteria, Prokaryotic, single-celled organisms)

ARCHAEA (Domain Archaea, Prokaryotic, single-celled organisms)

PROTISTS (Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Protista - Eukaryotic, mostly single-celled, protozoa and algae)

FUNGI (Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Fungi - Eukaryotic organisms, yeasts and molds)

VIRUSES (Not placed in any domain) - Acellular, not classified as living organisms)

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3
Q

List both “bad” and “good” of microorganisms

A

Bad
* Cause diseases
* Spoil food
* Bioweapon
* Produce toxins
* Causes fever, headaches, rashes, etc.

Good
* Aid in digestion
* Food production (cheese, yoghurt, bread, beer,)
* Produce essential vitamins
* Industrial use (detergent)
* Nutrient cycling
* Medicine (insulin)
* Microbiome (health)
Environmental cleanup (degrade oil & radioactive)

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4
Q

List the three Domains of living things. Based upon what traits, are organisms placed into each Domain? List similarities and differences between each of the three Domains.

A

ALL 3 SIMILARITIES: living things, cell structure, cell membrane, cytosol, free ribosomes, DNA (genome), some have CW, some have flagella

BACTERIA & ARCHAEA: circular chromosome, 70s free ribosomes, nucleoid (no nucleus), fimbriae, glycocalya, flagella)

BACTERIA & EUYKARYA: cell membrane has ester linkages,

ARCHAEA & EUYKARYA: genome has some introns

ONLY BACTERIA: cell wall made of peptidoglycan, endospores

ONLY ARCHAEA: cell wall made of pseudopeptidoglycan, polysaccharides, and proteins, cell membrane has ether linkages, monolayer, hami

ONLY EUYKARYA: nucleus, membrane bound organelles,
80s ribosomes, linear chromosomes, flagella made of 9+2 microtubules, some have cilia. Some CW made of cellulose or chitin.

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5
Q

Endospores

A

Dormant, non-reprofuctive structures produced by some bacteria to survive in harsh environmental conditions

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6
Q

70s ribosomes

A

ribosomes found in prokaryotic cells (bacteria and archaea) consisting of a 50s large subunit and a 30s small subunit.

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7
Q

80s ribosomes

A

ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi) consisting of a 60s large subunit and a 40s small subunit.

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8
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

Forms cell wall of bacteria

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9
Q

What is the cell wall of Archaea made of

A

Pseudopeptidoglycan, polysaccharides, and proteins

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10
Q

Flagella

A

Microscopic, hair-like structures that help cells move

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11
Q

What is the difference between gram positive and gram negative flagella

A

Gram-positive bacteria have only two rings in their basal body while Gram-negative bacteria have four rings

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12
Q

What are the structures of flagella

A

Filament, hook, basal body

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13
Q

How do each of the domains (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya) reproduce

A

Bacteria and Archaea: asexually

Eukarya: both sexually and asexually

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14
Q

Characteristics of a living thing

A
  • The ability to reproduce
  • A cell structure
  • The ability to grow and develop
    . The use of energy
    . Homeostasis
  • Metabolism and respiration
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15
Q

Why are viruses not considered living things

A

They lack: Cells, metabolism, and the ability to reproduce independently. They rely on host cells to replicate.

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16
Q

Describe Spontaneous Generation

A

belief that living organisms could be created from non-living matter spontaneously

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17
Q

I conducted an experiment in 1668 to test whether maggots spontaneously arise from decaying meat. I placed meat in two sets of jars, one set open and the other covered. Maggots only appeared in the open jars where flies could lay eggs, disproving spontaneous generation and supporting the idea that life comes from pre-existing life. Who am I?

A

Francesco Redi

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18
Q

In 1745, I boiled nutrient broth and sealed it in flasks, later observing microbial growth. I claimed this supported the theory of spontaneous generation, as I believed all life had been killed during boiling. However, my method was flawed, likely due to insufficient boiling or improper sealing of the flasks. Who am I?

A

John Needham

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19
Q

In 1765, I repeated an earlier experiment by boiling nutrient broth for a longer time and sealing the flasks more thoroughly. I observed no microbial growth in the sealed flasks, contradicting the idea of spontaneous generation. I concluded that microorganisms come from the air, not the broth. Who am I?

A

Lazzaro Spallanzani

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20
Q

In 1861, I used S-shaped (swan-neck) flasks filled with broth, leaving them open to air but preventing dust and microbes from reaching the broth. No microbial growth occurred until the flask was tilted or the neck was broken, allowing dust to enter. This experiment definitively disproved spontaneous generation by showing microorganisms come from the air, not non-living matter. Who am I?

A

Louis Pasteur

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21
Q

Place the Scientists on a timeline:
(a) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
(b) Ignaz Semmelweis
(c) Joseph Lister
(d) Alexander Fleming
(e) John Snow
(f) Edward Jenner
(g) Robert Koch
(h) Shibasaburo Kitasato
(i) Martinus Beijerinck
(l) Carl Weese
(k) Stanley Pruisner
(1) Frederick Griffith
(m) Lynn Margulis

A

(a) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek: 1670s-1720s
(f) Edward Jenner: 1726
(b) Ignaz Semmelweis: 1840s
(e) John Snow: 1854
(c) Joseph Lister: 1860s
(g) Robert Koch: 18705-1880s
(h) Shibasaburo Kitasato: 1894
(i) Martinus Beijerinck: 1898
(l) Frederick Griffith: 1928
(d) Alexander Fleming: 1928
(m) Lynn Margulis: 1967
(i) Carl Woese: 1977
(k) Stanley Prusiner: 1982

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22
Q

In the 17th century, I developed microscopes and became the first to observe and describe bacteria, protozoa, and other microorganisms, making microbial life known. Who am I?

A

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

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23
Q

In 1796, I developed the first successful smallpox vaccine using cowpox, laying the foundation for immunology and the concept of vaccination. Who am I?

A

Edward Jenner

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24
Q

In the 1840s, I introduced handwashing with chlorinated lime solutions in maternity wards, reducing infections and promoting hygiene as key to preventing disease spread. Who am I?

A

Ignaz Semmelweis

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25
Q

I traced a cholera outbreak in London in 1854 to a contaminated water pump, linking water contamination to disease transmission and advancing epidemiology. Who am I?

A

John Snow

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26
Q

In the 1860s, I pioneered antiseptic surgery using carbolic acid to sterilize instruments and wounds, reducing infections and transforming surgery safety. Who am I?

A

Joseph Lister

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27
Q

In the 1880s, l identified the microbes causing tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax and established systematic postulates linking specific microbes to diseases. Who am I?

A

Robert Koch

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28
Q

I co-discovered the bacterium causing bubonic plague in 1894 and contributed to tetanus research, developing important antitoxins. Who am I?

A

Shibasaburo Kitasato

29
Q

In the 1890s, I discovered viruses and developed the enrichment culture technique to isolate microorganisms from environmental samples. Who am I?

A

Martinus Beijerinck

30
Q

In 1928, I discovered bacterial transformation through experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae, which led to the eventual discovery of DNA as the genetic material. Who am I?

A

Frederick Griffith

31
Q

In 1928, I discovered penicillin, the first antibiotic, which revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections. Who am I?

A

Alexander Fleming

32
Q

In 1967, I proposed the endosymbiotic theory, explaining the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells. Who am I?

A

Lynn Margulis

33
Q

In 1977, I redefined the tree of life by identifying the Archaea domain through ribosomal RNA analysis, revolutionizing microbial classification.
Who am I?

A

Carl Woese

34
Q

In 1982, I discovered prions, infectious proteins responsible for neurodegenerative diseases, challenging traditional ideas about infectious agents. Who am I?

A

Stanley Prusiner

35
Q

Define pathogen

A

A microorganism, such as a virus, bacterium, or fungus, that can cause disease in a host.

36
Q

Define disease

A

A condition that impairs normal bodily functions, often caused by pathogens like bacteria or viruses.

37
Q

Compare & contrast the cell walls of Archaea, Gram positive/Gram negative Bacteria and/or acid-fast bacteria

A

Archaea: cell walls lack peptidoglycan, instead containing pseudopeptidoglyxans, proteins, or polysaccharides

Gram-Positive Bacteria: thick peptidoglycan layer with teichoic acids, stains purple in gram staining

Gram-Negative Bacteria: thin peptidoglycan layer, outer membrane with LPS, stains pink in gram staining

Acid-Fast bacteria: contain myolic acids in their cell walls which makes them waxy and resistant to staining requiring acid fast techniques eg. mycobacterium

38
Q

How is Mycoplasma unique

A

Mycoplasma is unique because it lacks a cell wall entirely, making it resistant to antibiotics like penicillin that target cell wall synthesis. Instead, it has a flexible cell membrane and can survive in various environments due to its adaptability.

39
Q

How is an endospore different from a reproductive spore

A

An Endospore is formed by certain bacteria to survive harsh conditions, while a Reproductive spore is used by fungi, plants, and some bacteria for generating new organisms

40
Q

Describe the endospore formation process

A

Endospore formation starts when bacteria detect harmful conditions. The cell divides unevenly, creating a smaller forespore and a larger mother cell. The mother cell then engulfs the forespore, and the endospore matures by forming a tough coat, losing water, and gathering protective molecules, which makes it dormant.

41
Q

Describe the endospore germination process

A

Germination happens when conditions improve, causing the endospore to take in water, break down its protective layers, and restart metabolic activity. This leads to the growth of a new vegetative cell, allowing the bacterium to become active again and reproduce.

42
Q

What makes the spore heat resistant

A

Their unique structure, has a thick protective coat made of proteins, low water content, and contains dipicolinic acid and (SASPs). These features stabilize the DNA and protect it from damage

43
Q

Name a bacterial species that form endospores

A

Bacillus anthracis: which is the causative agent of anthrax.

Clostridium botulinum: known for producing the botulinum toxin.

44
Q

Describe the endosymbiotic theory

A

Theory suggests that eukaryotic cells evolved from simple prokaryotic cells through symbiosis. Some prokaryotes were engulfed by larger cells and evolved into organelles

45
Q

What is evidence of the endosymbiotic theory

A

The presence of double membranes around mitochondria and chloroplasts

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own circular DNA similar to bacterial DNA

They have ribosomes resembling those found in bacteria

46
Q

Describe aseptic technique

A

Aseptic technique is a practice that prevents contamination of sterile environments and materials by using sterile tools, disinfecting surfaces, wearing protective gear, and minimizing exposure to non-sterile surfaces.

47
Q

Identify parts of the compound light microscope & describe the respective functions of each part

A
  1. Eyepiece (Ocular Lens): The lens you look through, typically with a magnification of 10x
  2. Objective Lenses: Multiple lenses (usually 4x, 10x, 40x, and
    100x) that provide different levels of magnification
  3. Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed
  4. Illuminator: The light source that illuminates the specimen from below.
  5. Condenser: Focuses light onto the specimen to enhance clarity and resolution.
  6. Iris Diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the specimen
  7. Coarse Focus Knob: Moves the stage up and down quickly for initial focusing on the specimen.
  8. Fine Focus Knob: Provides precise control for making detailed adjustments to focus after initial focusing
  9. Arm: Supports the upper parts of the microscope and is used for carrying it.
  10. Base: The bottom support structure that stabilizes the microscope.
48
Q

Identify different morphologies & arrangements of bacteria (Ex. 2)

A

Coccus (cocci): sphere or ovoid
Bacillus (bacilli): rod shaped
Vibrio: comma shaped or curved rod
Spirillum: spiral, curved, or wavy
Spirochete: tightly wound spiral

Mono-: cells arranged individually
ex. monococcus (one circle), monobacillus (one rod, tictac)

Diplo-: arranged in pairs (two circles)
ex. diplococcus (two circles)

Strepto-: arranged in chains
ex. streptococcus (chain of circles), streptobacillus (chain of rods)

Staphylo-: irregular clusters
ex. staphylococcus (cluster of circles)

Tetrad: 4 cells arranged in a single plain (4 circles in a cube)
Sarcina: 8 cells arranged in a 3D cube

Palisade: log like bacilli

49
Q

Difference between Bacteria and Bacterium

A

“Bacteria” is the plural form, meaning it refers to multiple single-celled organisms

“Bacterium” is the singular form, referring to just one of those single-celled organisms

50
Q

Millimeters to micrometers

A

micrometers = millimeters*1000

1 millimeter is equal to 1000 micrometers.

51
Q

Micrometers to nanometers

A

nanometers = micrometers×1000

1 micrometer is equal to 1000 nanometers.

52
Q

What is the typical size of bacteria (or at least a range)?

A

0.2 to 2.0 micrometers in diameter and 1 to 10 micrometers in length.

53
Q

What is the first step of gram staining

A
  1. Crystal Violet Staining:

Reagent: Crystal violet (primary stain).

Description: All bacteria will appear purple at this stage.

Reason: Crystal violet enters both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, staining them purple.

54
Q

What is the second step of gram staining

A
  1. lodine Treatment:

Reagent: lodine solution (mordant).

Description: All bacteria remain purple.

Reason: lodine forms a complex with crystal violet, helping to stick the dye in the cells.

55
Q

What is the third step of gram staining

A
  1. Decolorization:

Reagent: Ethanol or acetone

Description:
Gram-positive: Remain purple.
Gram-negative: Turn colorless.

Reason:
-Ethanol/acetone dehydrates the thick peptidoglycan layer in Gram-POSITIVE bacteria, trapping the crystal violet-iodine complex.

-It disrupts the outer membrane of Gram-NEGATIVE bacteria and removes the dye, exposing the colorless peptidoglycan layer.

56
Q

What is the fourth step of gram staining

A
  1. Counterstaining:

Reagent: Safranin (secondary stain).

Description:
Gram-Positive: Remain purple.
Gram-Negative: Turn pink.

Reason:
pink,
Safranin stains the now colorless Gram-NEGATIVE bacteria

-While the already purple Gram-POSITIVE bacteria remain unaffected due to the dominance of the crystal violet stain.

57
Q

Example of Improperly Gram-Stained Slide

A

An example of an improperly Gram-stained slide might show both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria appearing pink.

58
Q

Possible problems of gram staining

A
  1. Over-decolorization: If the decolorization step is too prolonged, Gram-positive bacteria may lose the crystal violet stain and appear pink, similar to Gram-negative bacteria.
  2. Under-decolorization: If the decolorization is insufficient, Gram-negative bacteria may retain the crystal violet, appearing purple instead of pink.
  3. Inadequate rinsing: Failing to rinse adequately between steps can lead to carryover of reagents, resulting in unexpected colors.
59
Q

What is the first step in acid fast staining

A
  1. Primary Staining

Reagent: Carbol fuchsin

Description: Apply carbol fuchsin and heat gently (steam) for about 5 minutes.

Reason: This dye penetrates the waxy cell wall of acid-fast bacteria, staining them red.

60
Q

What is the second step in acid fast staining

A
  1. Decolorization:

Reagent: Acid-alcohol (usually
3% hydrochloric acid in ethanol).

Description: Decolorize the slide by applying acid-alcohol for about 1 minute.

Reason: This step removes the dye from non-acid-fast bacteria but not from acid-fast bacteria, which retain the red color due to their thick, lipid-rich cell walls.

61
Q

What is the third step in acid fast staining

A
  1. Counterstaining:

Reagent: Methylene blue.

Description: Apply methylene blue for about 1 minute.

Reason: Non-acid-fast bacteria will take up the blue counterstain, appearing blue, while acid-fast bacteria remain red.

62
Q

What are some Diseases Caused by Acid-Fast Bacteria:

A
  1. Tuberculosis: Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
  2. Leprosy: Caused by Mycobacterium Leprae.
63
Q

How may this unique cell wall Composition may aid in Pathogenicity (acid fast)

A

The cell walls of acid-fast bacteria contain a high concentration of mycolic acids, that create a waxy, impermeable layer. This unique composition aids in their pathogenicity by:

Resistance to Desiccation: The waxy layer helps the bacteria survive in harsh environments and resist phagocytosis by immune cells.

Impaired Penetration by Antimicrobial Agents: The thick lipid-rich cell wall makes it difficult for antibiotics to penetrate, contributing to the persistence of infections.

Enhanced Immune Evasion: The mycolic acids can hinder the host’s immune response, allowing these bacteria to survive and replicate within host tissues.

64
Q

Step 1 in capsule (negative) staining include all reagents used

A
  1. Prepare the Slide:

Reagent: India ink or nigrosin (negative stains).

Description: Place a small drop of India ink or nigrosin on one end of a clean glass slide.

65
Q

Step 2 in capsule (negative) staining include all reagents used

A
  1. Apply primary stain

Reagent: Crystal violet stain

Description: Add crystal violet stain to color the background

66
Q

Step 3 in capsule (negative) staining include all reagents used

A
  1. Gently rinse the slide

Reagent: Copper sulfate

Description: Gently rinse the slide with copper sulfate to remove excess stain

67
Q

Step 4 in capsule (negative) staining include all reagents used

A
  1. Air Dry:

Description: Allow the slide to air dry completely without heating, as heat can destroy the capsules.

68
Q

Step 5 in capsule (negative) staining include all reagents used

A
  1. Examine Under Microscope:

Description: Observe the slide under the microscope using oil immersion. The background will appear dark (due to the negative stain), and the bacteria will appear as bright, clear areas surrounded by a halo (the capsule).

Biology 260 (34 decks)

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