Unit 0 vocab Research Methods Flashcards
Correlation (research?)(DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION)
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Positive Correlation
A relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together
Negative Correlation
A relationship between 2 variables in which the value of one variable increases as the value of the other decreases
Directionality problem
In correlation research, the situation in which it is known that 2 variables are related, although it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect
Third variable problem
An undiscovered causative variable. When a relationship is found between variables X and Y, X may be thought to be the cause of Y, but the cause may be hidden variable Z that is correlated with X
Scatterplots
A graphed cluster of dots each represents the values of 2 variables. The slope of the point suggests the direction of the relationship between the 2 variables. The amount of scattered suggest the strength of correlation
Correlation coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between 2 things (from -1 to +1)
Quantitative measure
Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to understand relationships, patterns, or trends
Qualitative measure
Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data such as observations, interviews, or textural analysis to understand meanings, experiences, or perspectives
Surveys
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of a group
Framing
The way that a problem is presented to someone, and it could drastically change that person’s view or reaction to the problem
Social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
Self-report bias
Inaccuracies or distortions and responses to surveys or questionnaires due to factors such as social desirability memory recall or misunderstanding of questions
Meta-analysis
A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies
Naturalistic observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Falsifability
The principle that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to conceive of evidence that would prove it false
Operational definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study. For example human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Peer review
The evaluation of scientific academic or professional work by others in the same field to ensure its quality and validity before publication or presentation
Ethical guidelines
Rules of acceptable conduct that members of a given profession are expected to follow
Institutional review board (IRB)
A committee at each college/university where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.
Informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Informed assent
an agreement by an individual not competent to give legally-valid informed consent (e.g., a child aged 7-17 or cognitively-impaired person) to participate in research.
Protection from harm
Reasonable steps taken to avoid and minimize adverse effects for research participants where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.
Confidentiality of participants
A principle of professional ethics requiring researchers to limit the disclosure of research participants and survey respondents’ identity and any unique data collected during a study.
Minimal deception
If the participants are deceived in any way about the nature of the study, the deception must not be so extreme as to invalidate the informed consent.
Confederates
In an experimental situation, an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment.
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Central tendency Mean
the arithmetic average if a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Central tendency Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above and half are below
Central tendency Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Measures of variation Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Measures of variation standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes
Measures of variability
statistics that describe the amount of difference and spread in a data set.
Percentages (measures of variability)
Percentages are a way of summarising nominal level data (frequencies in categories). A percentage is a portion of a whole expressed as a number between 0 and 100 (instead of as a fraction).
Percentile rank (measures of variability)
The precentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a particular score. Example: A student whose precentile rank is 85 has outpreformed 85 percent of all students.
positive skew
The degree to which a set of scores, measurements, or other numbers are asymmetrically distributed with a majority toward the low end of the distribution with a few extreme scores toward the high end.
negative skew
The degree to which a set of scores, measurements, or other numbers are asymmetrically distributed with a majority toward the high end of the distribution with a few extreme scores toward the low end.
Bimodal distribution
A frequency distribution having two different values that are heavily populated with cases
Regression toward the mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward the average.
Statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Effect sizes
Effect size is a quantitative measure of the magnitude of the experimental effect. The larger the effect size the stronger the relationship between two variables
Confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it (also known as I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct and to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
Experimental Method
Researcher sets up the environment and controls the variables of a study
Non-experimental
Happens in a real life setting where it is not possible to to control all variables
Independent variables
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated -variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor, the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Confounding variables
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and controlled groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between those assigned to different groups
Population
All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Sample
A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a study to be representative of the whole
Random Sampling
A sample that fairly represents a population because each number has an equal chance of inclusion
Representative Samples
The selection of study units (people, schools, homes) from a population in an unbiased way so that the sample obtained accurately reflects the total population
Convenience Samples
Any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is not random or systematic, but rather governed by chance or availability. This method does not generalize to the population since there is significant bias.
Sampling Bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Generalizability
Degree to which a study’s findings based on a sample apply to the entire population (provided the sample is representative and large enough)
Experimental Group
The group that is exposed to the treatment / independent variable
Control Group
The group that is not exposed to treatment, serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Placebo Group
Any group that receives medical or psychological intervention or treatment believed to be “inert.”
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone. Any effect in behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Single-blind procedure
Participants don’t know if they are in the experimental group or control group
Double-blind procedure
Both researchers and participants are ignorant about whether the participants have received a treatment or placebo
Experimenter bias
Occurs when a researchers expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
Case Study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Psychology
The scientific study of the mind and behavior
empirical evidence
information acquired by observation or experimentation
scientific method
A systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested.
reliability
The consistency of a research study or measuring test
validity
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
The American Psychological Association (APA)
A professional organization representing psychologists in the United States
likert scale
A psychometric scale is commonly used in questionnaires, and is the most widely used scale in survey research
structured interview
A quantitative research method where the interviewer sets a sequence of questions
survey technique
A research technique that involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions
wording effect
The effect that question phrasing and order have on survey data
Sample Bias
A bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others
Statistics
A branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data
descriptive statistics
Statistics that summarize the data collected in a study
Inferential statistics
Statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population based on a sample of data
Measure of Central Tendency
A statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution
