Topic 6: FP (1997-2007)

Question 1

4

Describe Blair’s aims on FP

Answer 1

• Make UK a leading player in Europe
• Foster a people’s diplomacy to increase respect for Britain
• Make Britain leading partner in achieiving international progressive goals
• 1997, Robin Cook (FS) declared that Britain’s FP would be ethical, human rights respected and commercial interests protected

Question 2

3

Describe Blair’s aims on Europe

Answer 2

• Aimed for more positive relationship after toxicity under Tory administration
• e.g. opting back into social chapter
• Promised to place Britain at centre of EU

Question 3

6

Describe Blair’s leadership on Europe

Answer 3

• Self-proclaimed ‘most pro-Europe Prime Minister ever’
• Strong relationship with French President Chirac at Saint-Malo Agreement 1998
• Ideological ties with German President, Schroder’s social democracy
• High personal standing permitted Britain to take leading role in enlargment negotiations and Treaty of Nice 2001
• 2004, signed European constitution (though never ratified)
• Successive landslide NL victories isolated eurosceptic wing

Question 4

4

Describe limits to Blair’s leadership on Europe

Answer 4

• Relations with Chirac and Schroeder cooled due to CAP and Iraq
• Closest relationships were conservatives - José María Aznar
  (Spain) and Silvio Berlusconi (Italy)
• Blair advised to distance himself from controversial Berlusconi
• Yet demonstrated Blair’s willingness to deliver policy, rather than conforming to ideological constraints

Question 5

5

Describe Blair’s handling of the Euro

Answer 5

• Blair enthusiastic
• Brown opposition
• Missed honeymoon period to capitalise on personal popularity to join eurozone
• Introduced Jan 1999 with no British participation
• 2001 conservatives - ‘save the pound’

Question 6

3

Describe Brown’s opposition to the euro

Answer 6

• Brown’s controlling of economy allowed him to enforce strict 5 tests for membership
• Blair hoped for entry at later date
• Yet by 2004, popular vote would have become de facto referendum on Blair’s credibility

Question 7

3

Describe the special relationship in relation to Europe under Blair

Answer 7

• Blair hoped that Britain would act as Atlantic bridge
• Reinforced suspicion of a fundamental lack of British Europeanism
• 1998-2001 Anglo-American bombing raids on Iraq criticised by European counterparts

Question 8

3

Describe the impact of the Iraq War on EU relations

Answer 8

• March 2003, Chirac announced France would veto any second UN resolution to British-American proposals
• Blair’s desire to legitimise American military policy in EU disintegrated
• Relations only improved when Schroeder and Chirac stepped down in 2005 and 2007 respectively

Question 9

3

Describe Britain’s global role under Blair through Europe

Answer 9

• Blair took lead on European initiatives to climate change, world change and reform to African aid to make ‘poverty history’
• At centre of central European global terrorism strategy following 9/11
• Aimed to promote Israeli-Palestine and peaceful Iran relations through EU

Question 10

3

Describe Blair’s signing of the Social Chapter

Answer 10

• Signed Social Chapter upon Labour taking office
• In line with Labour’s promotion of protecting socio-economic rights
• Guaranteed rights in employment, housing, education, etc

Question 11

5

Describe the expansion of the EU (1997-2007)

Answer 11

• Accession negotiations for 6 former communist bloc nations during Britain’s Council Presidency in 1998
• Blair made serious miscalculation in not taking up option of imposing restrictions on free movement access for new member state workers
• 2007, Blair imposed temporary transitional restrictions when Romania and Bulgaria joined
• 2007, promoted Turkish membership who had then-liberal reformist PM Erdogan
• By 2007, had expanded to 27 members + applications from Serbia, Croatia

Question 12

4

Describe the impact of EU enlargement (1997-2007)

Answer 12

• Embraced by both Conservatives and Labour as enlargement reduced likelihood of federal structure
• Broke Franco-German political domination
• British policymakers had to decide how important Britain’s role would be in ‘New Europe’
• UKIP rose from 2 MEP seats (1999) to 12 (2004)

Question 13

4

Describe European Secuirty and Defence policy (1997-2007)

Answer 13

• Saint-Malo Agreement 1998 saw Britain and France lay foundations for common security/defence policy
• agreed to advance creation of a European military force capable to autonomous action
• Marked initial productive relationship with Chirac
• Britain had previously been reluctant in extending EU soveriegnty to defence for fear of resulting NATO complications

Question 14

4

Describe Blair’s handling of CAP

Answer 14

• During 2002 CAP negotiations, Chirac told Blair that ‘you have been very rude and I have never been spoken to like that before’
• Blair understood that any progress on CAP reform required giving concessions on rebate
• Dec 2005, outmanoeuvred on European Council meeting when he accepted modest rebate cut despite no formal agreement on reducing CAP
• Unable to break German-French duopoly

Question 15

2

Describe the positives in Britain’s position in Europe by 2007

Answer 15

• Personal prestige was high
• Enjoyed strong relationships with Merkel and Sarkozy and with ‘New Europe’

‘New Europe’ - new central/eastern member states

Question 16

4

Describe the negatives in Britain’s position in Europe by 2007

Answer 16

• Progress on African aid and climate change frustratingly slow
• Constitutional failures
• Biggest failure was change in British public attitude from embracement in 1997 to growing populist scepticism in 2007
• National press continued to be hostile

Question 17

4

Describe EU Constitutional failures under Blair

Answer 17

• Attempted reform of EU technocracy and EU Constitution introduction stalled
• Dutch and French rejections of proposed constitutional treaty in 2005 led to dilution in Lisbon Treaty signed in 2007
• Saved Blair from holding planned ratification referendum
• Almost certainly would have been lost

Question 18

6

Describe Blair’s constructive attitude towards the Special Relationship with Clinton

Answer 18

• Ideological ties with third-way Clinton
• Close ties between New Labour aides and Democrat advisors on how to achieve electoral success
• Close relationship on tackling global terrorism threat
• Robin Cook (FS) stated that the desire to be the clear No.1 ally of the US was the ‘fixed pole’ of Tony Blair’s FP
• Blair convinced that US and NATO involvement was necessary in European affairs after failures of EU and UN diplomacy to prevent Yugoslav Wars (1991-2001)
• Persuaded Clinton to speak at 2002 annual Labour conference

Question 19

3

Describe Blair’s strained Special Relationship with Clinton

Answer 19

• Blair alienated by reveal of Clinton’s sexual discretions in 1998
• Kosovo Crisis 1999 strained relations
• Accusations British FP had become dominated by US

Question 20

5

Describe Blair’s attitude towards the Special Relationship with Bush

Answer 20

• Al Gore, another ideological soulmate, lost in 2000
• Believed he could tame Bush’s aggressive tendencies
• Disagreements kept in private
• Bush grateful for Blair support but relied more heavily on key advisors
• Blair-Bush axis not partnership of equals - US dominated

Question 21

2

Describe the impact of 9/11

Answer 21

• Blair declared that it would be battle between free democratic world and terrorism, not just US
• Pledged to stand ‘shoulder to shoulder with our American friends’

Question 22

2

Describe Blair’s ‘liberal interventionism’

Answer 22

• Sent British forces into battle 5 times in 6 years
• April 1999 Chicago speech

Question 23

3

Describe Blair’s 1999 Chicago speech

Answer 23

• Made speech amid ethnic cleansing of Alabanians by Slobodan Milosevic’s Serbia in Kosovan crisis
• claimed it would be legitimate for liberal world to intervene in internal affairs of soveriegn state
• added caveats of exhaustion of diplomatic options and a long-term commitment to rebuilding nation

Question 24

3

Describe Blair’s intervention in the Balkan Wars

Answer 24

• Blair devoted diplomatic efforts to persuading reluctant Clinton to back military action against Serbia after attacks on Kosovo
• 1999, prolonged NATO bombing campaign led by British forces forced Milosevic to withdraw forces from Kosovo
• Embolden Blair’s international status and shaped later policies

Question 25

3

Describe Blair’s intervention in Sierra Leone

Answer 25

• 2000, 200-strong British military contingent sent to Sierra Leone when rebel forces in CW threatened to capture Freetown, the capital
• Initially sent to evacuate foreigners and British nationals
• Yet British forces supported UN peacekeepers
• Capital secured and CW ended in 2002

Question 26

2

Describe the background to the Afghanistan invasion

Answer 26

• Taliban had allowed Al-Qaeda to use country as training and terrorist operation planning base
• Preparations for NATO forces to invade Afghanistan started almost immediately after 9/11

Question 27

5

Describe the invasion fo Afghanistan

Answer 27

• Oct 7 2001
• Britain joined US military campaign to overthrow Taliban and expel Al-Qaeda from the country
• Supported by both UN and NATO
• Hoped that Afghanistan would quickly develop into further modern democratic state
• Intended to be furtehr sign of liberal interventionism

Question 28

5

Describe the consequences of the invasion of Afghanistan

Answer 28

• No instant pacification (war would enter stalemate and last 20 years)
• Leaders of Taliban and Al-Qaeda escaped, including Bin Laden
• Weak democratic regime established with limited economic and political development
• Attention drawn towards Iraq from 2002
• Divided focus allowed Taliban to regroup in 2006-07

Question 29

3

Describe the pretext to the invasion of Iraq

Answer 29

• Saddam Hussein had been ‘contained’ by economic sanctions and NATO-policed ‘no-fly zones’ following First Gulf War 1990-91
• By 2002, increasing fears over the threat Saddam posed to West
• UN first resolution

Question 30

2

Describe Western fears of Saddam Hussein’s

Answer 30

• Iraq might link up with Al-Qaeda and provide new base for terrorism
• Iraq might develop WMD

Question 31

5

Describe the UN first resolution (resolution 1441) on Iraq

Answer 31

• UN resolution in Nov 2002 forced Saddam to allow weapons inspectors back in Iraq
• By early 2003 USA believed Saddam was not properly cooperating
• Dispute in UN about whether first resolution granted permission to use military force in these circumstances
• Blair made strenuous efforts to garner European support for second resolution
• Ultimately unsuccessful

Question 32

3

Describe the invasion of Iraq

Answer 32

• March 2003, invasion launched by ‘Coalition of the willing’: UK, US, Australia, Poland and Iraqi rebels
• By April 2003, military victory and overthrow of Saddam completed
• Yet Coalition forces became bogged down in war with no decisive end

Question 33

2

Describe the positives of the Iraq invasion

Answer 33

• By 2006, Iraqi government had become more stable and democratic + improvements in security situation
• Some argue Blair was correct in analysis that British involvement needed to ensure that US did not retreat to isolationism or unilateral action

Question 34

6

Describe opposition to the Iraq War

Answer 34

• Left-wing criticism (e.g. that war was about securing oil supplies, not ‘liberal interventionism’)
• Daily Mirror vocal source of opposition, releasing bloodied images of children on their front page
• ‘Stop the War’ march through central London in Feb 2003 attracted approx 1m demonstrators (biggest demonstration in British history)
• Four ministers, including Leader of HoC Robin Cook and Clare Short (International Development Sec), resigned over war in March 2003 - latter argued it was an illegal war without full UN backing
• David Kelly - exagerrated WMD threat
• British and US troops accused of unlawful torture of Iraqi prisoners e.g. waterboarding

Question 35

2

Describe the reduction of troops in Iraq

Answer 35

• Troops in Iraq reduced from 18k in May 2003 to 5.5k in Feb 2007
• Yet countered by need to reinforce Afghanistan effort

Question 36

3

Describe the Iraq situation by 2007

Answer 36

• 2007 situation fell considerably short of 2003 expectations for prosperous, permanently-stable liberal democracy
• More than 180 UK troops had died in operations
• Britain had 13,000 troops in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Question 37

4

Describe the impact of Iraq

Answer 37

• Rise of islamic terror - ISIS formed 2004
• Irreparably damaged Blair’s international reputation
• Made it more difficult for future British Governments to convince public of need for military involvement
• Consequently struggled to use diplomatic efforts and leverage of EU to mediate Israel-Palestine conflict

Question 38

5

Describe defence spending under Blair

Answer 38

• Rose from £21bn to £32bn between 1997 and 2007
• Defence budget remained steady at around 2.5% of GDP (twice that of Germany) - above 2% NATO target
• Longest growth in defence spending for more than 20 years
• Size of armed forces at 96% of capacity
• 2007, Renewed trident at cost of £20bn despite 95 rebel Labour MPs

Question 39

2

Describe progressive defence policy

Answer 39

• Manufacture of landmines banned
• No more hawk jets to be sold to Indonesia

Question 40

3

Describe scandals in defence policy

Answer 40

• Licenses meant that spare parts for existing Indonesian hawk jets contiued to be delivered
• Dropped fraud investigations into BAE systems deals with Saudi Arabia
• £28bn military air traffic control deal with heavily indebted Tanzania pushed through despite extensive opposition

Question 41

3

Describe Blair’s FP in Africa

Answer 41

• Used G8 Presidency in 2005 to forward plan for debt write-off for low-income nations
• Plan to double aid package in Africa to $25bn annoucned in 2005
• Deserves much credit for Libya’s 2003 decision to dismantle WMD programme by lifting Western sanctions in 2004

Question 42

6

Describe Britain’s position in the world by 2007

Answer 42

• By 2007, clear that Britain remained major power in world affairs
• Ongoing international relationships would continue to be debated
• Special relationship undoubtedly strengthened
• Britain’s position in EU remained ambivalent
• Britain was further from eurozone in 2007 than in 1997
• Iraq discredited liberal interventionism