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Biology > Topic 3 > Flashcards

Topic 3 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

how to extract DNA from fruit

A
  • crush the strawberries and put them into a beaker containing a solution of detergent and salt
  • detergent will break down the cell membranes to release DNA
  • the salt will make the DNA stick together
  • protease - breaks down protein in the cell membrane

Filter the mixture to get the froth and big insoluble bits of the cell out to get rid of cell debris

Gently add ice-cold alcohol to the filtered mixture. This causes the DNA to start to come out of the solution as it’s not soluble in cold alcohol. - precipitates teh DNA

It will appear as a stringy white precipitate solid what can be carefully fished out with a glass rod

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2
Q

sexual reproduction

A

+ their offspring isn’t genetically identical so there’s variation so they can adapt to changes in the environment - increased genetic variation
+allows evolution
- organism expends energy finding a mate
- takes longer than aesexual reproduction
- offspring can get less advantageous features than their parent

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3
Q

Aesexual reproduction

A

+ faster
+ organisms don’t need to expend energy to find a mate
- offspring are genetically identical so no genetic variation - if there was a disease the species would die

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4
Q

transcription

A

process form which mrna is made by using DNA as a template

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5
Q

translation

A

a process in which the sequence of codons on teh mRNA is coded for a specific order of amino acids to form a polypeptide

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6
Q

meiosis

A

1 there are 4 chromosomes in a cell
2 each chromosomes has duplicated
3 the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
4 the pairs of chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite ends of the cell
5 two cells are formed
6 chromosomes line p in the middle of the cell
7 chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite ends of the cell
8 there are now 4 cells

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7
Q

cells produced in meiosis

A

parent cell produces 4 daughter cells called sex cells
they are haploid and genetically different with half the number of chromosomes than the parent cell

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8
Q

gene

A

section of DNA that codes for a specific protein
it exists in different forms called alleles

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9
Q

genotype

A

descibes the alleles

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10
Q

phenotype

A

describes physical apperance

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11
Q

Bb

A

heterozygous

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12
Q

BB

A

homozygous dominant

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13
Q

bb

A

homozygous ressesive

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14
Q

structure of DNA

A

-two parallel strands twist around each other forming a double helix
-dna is a polymer made up of many nucleotides
- each nucleotide is made from sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate and base
- A pairs with T and C pairs with G because they are complimentary base pairs and are held by weak hydrogen bonds

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15
Q

Transcription

A

RNA polymerase binds to the non-coding section of the DNA in front of the gene
RNA polymerase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the bases in DNA causing the 2 strands to separate
One strand of DNA called the template strand is used to synthesize a strand of M rna. This section is called the coding section od DNA
The bases on the mRNA strands are complimentary to teh bases on teh DNA strand
However, base T is replaced with base U
RNA polymerase joins the RNA nucleotides together to form mRNA
teh mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pore to go to teh ribizome
Making mRNA using DNA as a template is called transcription

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16
Q

mitosis / meiosis

A
  • two daughter cells produced / 4 daughter cells produced
  • diploid / haploid
  • daughter cells genetically identical / daughter cells genetically different
  • cell division growth and repair / production of sex cells
  • everywhere / reproductive organs
  • cells divide once / twice
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17
Q

why does meiosis produce haploid cells

A

the diploid number needs to be restored in fertilisation

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18
Q

similarities of mitosis and meiosis

A

types of cell division
chromosomes replicate

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19
Q

DNA

A

deoxiribon nucleic acid
code that makes protein

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20
Q

female at birth

A

XX

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21
Q

male at birth

A

XY

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22
Q

caused by recessive allele

A
  • sickle cell
  • cystic fibrosis
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23
Q

caused by dominant allele

A
  • Huntington’s disease
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24
Q

why are men more prone to colourblindness

A

males only have one X chromosone and teh Y chromosone is shorter so had alleles missing. Men will only have one allele for certain characteristics and wont be masked by a dominant allele. Females however have two X chromosones so the recessive allele can be masked by teh dominant

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25
Q

gene for blood groups

A

IA
IB
I0

26
Q

teher are 4 different types of blood group

A

A
AB
B
O

27
Q

there are _ possible genotypes

A

6

28
Q

IA and IB

A

are codominant with each other so one allele isn’t dominant over another and each allele is expressed.

29
Q

IO

A

recessive allele so someone with the genotype IA and IO
with have the blood group A

30
Q

transcription takes place in the

A

nucleus

31
Q

translation takes place in the

A

ribisomes + cytoplasm

32
Q

translation

A

mRNA attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm
A tRNA comes along with an anticodon on one end and an amino acid on the other
The 3 bases on the tRNA/ anticodon are complementary to the 3 bases on the mRNA
A second tRNA arrives with an anticodon on one end and an amino acid on the other
THe second codon on the mRNA is complimentary to the anticodon
A bond called polypeptide joins the amino acids together
A longer chain pf amino acids is formed which is called a polypeptide, this folds to form a protein

33
Q

DNA

A
  • in nucleus
  • base U isn’t present
  • double stranded
34
Q

DNA and mRNA

A
  • have bases
  • have sugar
  • both have bases A, C, G
35
Q

mRNA

A
  • in cytoplasm
  • single-stranded
36
Q

mutations

A

change in the base sequence of DNA ( deleted or inserted) in translation in teh ribizome. So teh incorrect amino acid in teh polypeptide sequence is coded for so the protein cant form/ fold correctly and is a different shape.

37
Q

mutation codon

A

the wrong amino acid is inserted so wont fold correctly and function

38
Q

explanation OF MUTATIONS

A

mutations are changes in the sequence of bases on DNA. Mutations in the coding section of DNA can affect the phenotype by altering the coding section of DNA can affect the phenotype by altering the sequence of amino acids and therefore the activity of protein produced in translation

39
Q

most mutations

A

dont have any effect on the phenotype

40
Q

some mutations

A

have a small effect on the phenotype

41
Q

very rarely

A

have a big effort on the phenotype e.g. cystic fibrosis

42
Q

genes only

A

natural eye colour
blood group

43
Q

enviromental

A

tattoo
religion

44
Q

both

A

mass of body
intelligence

45
Q

Varitation

A

there are two types of variation. Environmental and genetic. Environmental variations are acquired, and genetic variations are through genes only. Some are both environmental and genetic, like intelligence. Genetic variation is due to sexual reproduction, as through the process of meiosis, all eggs and sperm are genetically different

46
Q

Mendel

A

produced homozygous short plants and produced tall plants, therefore the offspring had a heterozygous genotype with one tall and one short allele, showing that tall allele was dominant over recessive.

47
Q

Mendel three conclusions

A
  • characteristics in plants caused by heredity units
  • heditary units could be dominant or recessive
  • passed unchanged from parents, one unit from each parent
48
Q

why were Mendel’s ideas controversial

A
  • scientists didn’t have much background information on genes
  • his time was religious so it was aginst their faith to belive him
  • he didn’t communicate his ideas well
49
Q

discontinuous

A

few groups
bar chart

50
Q

continuous

A

range of values
graph

51
Q

genome

A

an entire set of genes of an organism (25 000 genes)
could allow tailored medicine for the specific genes a patient has
allows people to change their lifestyle
identify the risk of developing diseases
determines location of the genes
treat genetic disorders

52
Q

drawbacks from genome project

A
  • people might be stressed if tehy knew they had a brain disease and panic every time they had a small headache
  • pressure to not have children
  • less likely to be employed
53
Q

cystic fibrosis

A

the production of thick sticky mucus

54
Q

sickle cell anaemia

A

Affects shape of cells

55
Q

how can there be a different allele for something

A

mutation in the base sequence

56
Q

how does the genome project help people understand plants and animals

A
  • track evolution
  • understand diseases
  • find cures for ilnesses
57
Q

flowers

A

sexual reproduction

58
Q

sperm

A

carries x or y chromosone
egg cell only carries x

59
Q

DNA

discovery

A

Contributions from Scientists:
* X-ray (crystallography) being used
* to show helical structure
* to show diameter of molecule
* how base pairs are arranged was shown
* how strands are arranged was shown
* modelling
* reference to using other people’s ideas

60
Q

sickle cell

A

tired / lethargic (1)
short of breath / reduced oxygen
carrying capacity / problems
exercising (1)
swelling of hands and feet (1)
painful / weak joints (1)
blocked blood vessels / blood
clots(1)

61
Q

catarax

A

when lens gets cloudy due to protein building up inside the lens so light cant pass through

62
Q

Describe the stages of antibiotic development that would occur after the
discovery of a new antibiotic.

A

the antibiotic would go through
a development phase (1)
* pre-clinical (stage / trials) (1)
* testing on animals / testing invitro / on cells (1)
* clinical (stage / trials) (1)
* testing on (healthy) volunteers /
testing on patients (1)
* double-blind trials (1)

Biology (9 decks)

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