Thinking And Problem Solving Flashcards
What is thinking
The conscious or subconscious cognitive processing of internal memory representations
May not always be logical
Thinking and the ability to solve problems is what moves science forwards and is nesesry for enhancing development of culture and human life on earth
What is a problem
A situation in which there is discrepancy between present state and goal state
Problem solving means to reduce the disrepency
Stages include representing and defining the problem generating possible solutions and evaluating possible solutions
Problem solving
Tower of Hanoi
1) starting state
2) goal state (get all in size order to final pillar)
3) constraints (can only do 1 move at a time and in size order)
Trial and error: try solution and check current state to goal state
Search space = all posssible states that could be achieved
The cognitive perspective
Humans think as an information processor
Information processing in humans resembles computers based on transforming, storing and retrieving information from memory
The arrival of the computer gave cognitive psychology the terminology and metaphor to investigate the human mind
Allowed psychologists to try u derstand complexities of human cognition by comparing it with s9methimg simpler eg artificial system
Newell and Simon problem solving and the cognitive approach
Problem solving applied as a computer programme eg a genral problem solver (gps)
3 assumptions
- information processing is serial
- people possess limited stm capacity
- relevant information from ltm can be retrieved
Positives of AI
Reduction in human error
Fewer risks
24/7 availability
Unbiased decisions
Can perform repetitive jobs
Negatives of AI
No creativity
No emotion
The role of schemas (concept which helps us to organise and interpret information)
Cognitive processing can often be affected by schemas (beliefs/expectations developed from experience )
With age becomes more detailed
Helps to interpret information quickly and effectively
Can also lead to distortion of this eg eye witness testimony
Gesalt appproach
Importance of seeing the whole structure of the problem
Distinguished between. Reproductive and productive thinking
Reproductive thinking uses previous experiences to solve problems can lead to inssuffieng problem solving
Productive thinking- problems need to be restructed which can lead to a flash of insight to reach a solution - pre solutions to solution is sudden
Principles can be applied to other problems
Gestalt - insight
Impasse(dead end) and insight(aha!)
Functional fixedness - apparatus seen in terms of their function
Thinking outside the box
Does problem solving always involve cognitive processing
Behaviourists (thorndike,skinner,Watson,pavlov) concerns with observable behaviours rather than internal processes ie thinking and emotion
Problems are solved via associations between stimulus and response and trail and error
Decision making
Problems when we know solutions but we need to pick one
Compensatory models:
If we were logical evaluate all possible outcomes might outweigh undesirable possible outcomes and how likely the outcomes are
Non-compensatory models
Eliminate various options if they don’t meet particular criteria
Reasoning
Thinking about something in logical manner
Probalistic - the likelihood of something happening
Biases in reasoning
Reasoning biases - Tversky and kahneman
Base rate fallacy- probability misjudgment due to consideration of base rate information eg > 50% car crashes occur within 5 miles of home
Availbility heuristic relies on examples that come first to mind
Reasoning biases - gamblers fallacy
If something happens more frequently than normal during some period it will happen less frequently in the future
