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Psych 101 > Thinking > Flashcards

Thinking Flashcards

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1
Q

Manipulating mental images for a purpose is known as ______.

A

Thinking

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2
Q

Thought is an extension of _____ and _____.

A

perception, memory

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3
Q

Units of thought

_____ _____ are representations that describe, explain or predict how things work

A

Mental models

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4
Q

Units of thought

Mental images are in the form of _____ images

A

visual

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5
Q

Units of thought

Objects are classified on the basis of their properties _______ and ____

A

categories, concept

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6
Q

Units of thought

_____ are groupings based on common properties

A

categories

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7
Q

Units of thought

_____ are internal mental representation of a category

A

concepts

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8
Q

Units of thought

_____ involves recognising an object as a member of a category

A

Categorisation

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9
Q

Units of thought

We categorise objects by: comparison with _____ features and Similarity/dissimilarity to _____.

A

defining, prototypes

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10
Q

Units of thought

Qualities that are essential for membership of the category are _____ _____

A

defining features

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11
Q

Units of thought

_____ are abstractions across many instances of a category

A

Prototypes

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12
Q

Units of thought

_____ are like our most generic template, containing only the most common and essential characteristics

A

Prototypes

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13
Q

Units of thought

A particularly good example of the category

A

exemplar

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14
Q

Units of thought

_____ involves flexibility. We use categorisation to both define the _____ of an object and to describe _____.

A

Categorisation, features, similarities

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15
Q

Units of thought

Categorisation is _____, it enables us to understand our environment faster to speed up _____ solving.

A

functional, problem

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16
Q

Units of thought

_____ are frequently hierarchically ordered with subconcepts at varying levels of abstraction. Efficient thinking requires choosing the right level of abstraction. Each level differs in its degree of defining detail

A

Concepts

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17
Q

Units of thought

The _____ level can be defined as “the broadest, most inclusive level at which objects share common attributes that are distinctive of the concept”

A

basic

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18
Q

Levels of operation.

In other instances people will operate on the _____ or _____ level. These different levels activate different parts of the brain.

A

subordinate, superordinate

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19
Q

Levels of operation

The _____ level relies on a memory search using language activating the left pre-frontal cortex involved in verbal memory retrieval.

A

superordinate,

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20
Q

Levels of operation

The _____ level relies on a perceptual search that attempts to match similarities in the object to the concept. The subordinate level results in activation of the right pre-frontal cortex, which is involved in visual attention.

A

subordinate,

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21
Q

______ shapes our basic categorisation, and can also affect the extent to which people rely on similarity or defining in categorisation

A

Culture,

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22
Q

What is the process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs

A

Reasoning

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23
Q

Reasoning

There are two kinds of reasoning:

A

inductive and deductive

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24
Q

Reasoning

_____ reasoning is the process of using specific observations to create general theories

A

Inductive

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25
Q

Reasoning

_____ reasoning is the reverse process whereby a set of general theories or premises are applied to specific instances

A

Deductive

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26
Q

Reasoning

This type of reasoning is from specific observations to general propositions and relies heavily on probabilities

A

Inductive reasoning

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27
Q

Reasoning

This type of reasoning is done by drawing a conclusion from set of assumptions or premises (e.g., syllogisms). The conclusion is true if the premise is true and reasoning logical.

A

Deductive reasoning

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28
Q

Reasoning

This type of reasoning depends on both the content and form (abstract or concrete) of the premise

A

deductive reasoning

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29
Q

Reasoning

_____ and _____ reasoning do not occur in isolation of each other but impact upon each other and are intertwined

A

Deductive and inductive

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30
Q

Reasoning

Syllogism example

A

Premise One: All 30-year-old women are blonde
Premise Two: Holly is a 30-year-old woman
Conclusion: Holly is blonde

The reasoning is correct – are the premises logical?

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31
Q

Reasoning

Aspects of deductive reasoning have been shown to differ across cultures: in the _____ there is a high importance placed on solving paradoxes and inconsistencies in the _____ inconsistencies can be more accepted, as each premise is evaluated in its own right rather than in relation to another premise.

A

West, East

32
Q

Analogical reasoning

What is the process by which people understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one.

A

Analogical reasoning

33
Q

In _____ reasoning the novel and familiar situations must each contain a number of elements that can be mapped onto each other.

A

analogical

34
Q

Analogical reasoning is like reasoning by _____

A

association.

35
Q

This refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal.

A

Problem solving

36
Q

_____ solving involves two states (an _____ state that you wish to change) and a _____ state (the state you wish to transform the initial state into).

A

Problem, initial, goal

37
Q

Problem solving

Transformation occurs using ______, which are actions performed to solve the problem. Operators can be mental and/or behavioural, i.e. thinking about something differently or doing something differently

A

operators

38
Q

This a _____ ______ example: your initial state is one of feeling like you do not have enough time to study. The goal state you desire is to manage your time well in order to be able to fit in study and feel on top of things (Note: this goal state is well-defined, it contains emotional, and multiple behavioural goals). To obtain these goal states the operators you may use could be any one or more of the following: drawing up a weekly timetable and locating time for study, dropping some other commitments in order to make time if you realise there actually is not enough for study and practicing rewards for making positive changes. This is an example of a well-defined problem.

A

problem solving

39
Q

Problems can be defined in two ways

A

Well-defined

Ill-defined

40
Q

Problems can be defined in two ways

Problems where the initial state, goal state, and operators are easily determined (e.g., stats problems) are :

A

Well-defined

41
Q

Problems can be defined in two ways

Problems that occur when both the information needed to solve the problem and the criteria for determining when the goal state has been met are vague (e.g., leader tasked with ‘improving morale’) are :

A

Ill-defined

42
Q

A well-defined problem includes clear understanding of: (3)

A

(1) initial state(s);
(2) operators; and,
(3) goal state(s).

43
Q

Problem-solving strategies are guides used for solving problems, name 3

A

algorithms
mental simulation
hypothesis testing.

44
Q

Problem-solving strategies

systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a (simple) problem.

A

Algorithms

45
Q

Problem-solving strategies

the mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem.

A

Mental simulation

46
Q

Problem-solving strategies

making an educated guess about a problem and then testing it.

A

Hypothesis testing

47
Q

Barriers to effective problem-solving include: (3)

A

1) functional fixedness;
2) mental set; and,
3) confirmation bias.

48
Q

Barriers to effective problem-solving

_____ ____the tendency to fix on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses.

A

Functional fixedness - For example, if you need to get a book down

49
Q

Barriers to effective problem-solving

_____ set is the tendency to keep using the same problem solving techniques that have been successful in the past .

A

Mental - when we continue to use past successful problem-solving techniques even when new and better strategies are possible

50
Q

Barriers to effective problem-solving

_____ _____ is the tendency to search for confirmation of what we already believe.

A

Confirmation bias

51
Q

Decision-making is the process of weighing up the _____ and _____ to make a choice.

A

pros and cons

52
Q

According to the information processing model when people make decisions they consider: (1) the utility (_____ _____) of each possible _____; and, (2) the _____ of each outcome occurring (estimated likelihood).

A

personal value, outcome, probability

53
Q

According to the information processing model

Ideally, we choose an alternative solution that scores high in both weighed utility (personal value) as well as expected utility (high expectation of achieving this alternative).

A

Within decision-making

54
Q

According to the information processing model

____ _____ _____: a combined judgement of the importance of an attribute and the extent to which a given option satisfies it.

A

Weighted Utility Value

55
Q

According to the information processing model

_____ Utility: a combined judgement of the weighted utility and the expected probability of obtaining an outcome.

A

Expected

56
Q

_____ cognition involves conscious manipulation of mental representations.

A

Explicit cognition

57
Q

_____ cognition involves unconscious manipulation of mental representations.

A

Implicit

58
Q

______ suggest that people can learn, generalise and discriminate stimuli without conscious thought (implicit and everyday thinking)

A

Behaviourists

59
Q

______ theory suggests that unconscious motives and emotions impact on problem solving and decision making, Implicit learning and problem solving

A

Psychodynamic

60
Q

_____ and _____ thinking is a different way of understanding thinking and is the product of Behaviourists and Psychodynamic theory

A

Explicit and implicit

61
Q

Both explicit and implicit thinking are influenced by our _____ and _____

A

motivations

emotions

62
Q

Types of heuristics (3)

A

Representative heuristic
Availability heuristic
Bounded reality

63
Q

Heuristics

Heuristics are _____ shortcuts for selecting amongst alternatives, without carefully considering each one (sometimes irrational)

A

cognitive

64
Q

Heuristics

_____ heuristic: we match an object to its category

A

Representative heuristic

65
Q

Heuristics

_____ _____: we decide that the events that we can easily recall are common and typical

A

Availability heuristic

66
Q

Heuristics

_____ _____: people are rationale within the bounds imposed by their environment, goals and abilities – leads to satisficing

A

Bounded reality

67
Q

These are _____ _____ _____ assumptions
Thought processing occurs in parallel
Meaning of a mental representation is distributed throughout the brain (neural networks)
Current perception activates neural networks (and multiple, individual nodes)

A

Parallel Distributed Processing

68
Q

Parallel Distributed Processing assumptions

_____ _____ satisfaction is the tendency to settle on a cognitive solution that satisfies as many constraints as possible (best fit of data)

A

Parallel Constraint

69
Q

Parallel Distributed Processing assumptions

_____ , otherwise known as Parallel Distribution Processing, assumes that multiple thought processes are occurring simultaneously.

A

Connectionism

70
Q

Neuropsychology of thinking

The _____ ______ are critical for the processing of thought

A

frontal lobes

71
Q

Neuropsychology of thinking

The _____ _____ cortex: plays a central role in working memory and explicit manipulation of representations (conscious thought)

A

Dorsolateral prefrontal

72
Q

Neuropsychology of thinking

The _____ _____ cortex: plays a role in the use of emotional reactions to guide decision making and behaviour

A

Ventromedial prefrontal

73
Q

Neuropsychology of thinking

Two main regions of the pre-frontal cortex that perform different thought functions are the

A

1) Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

2) the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.

74
Q

Neuropsychology of thinking

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex handles _____ memory and _____ thought.

A

working, explicit

75
Q

Neuropsychology of thinking

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex handles many functions including the use of _____ reactions in decision-making. Emotion is critical in decision making as it can act as an on-off switch that signals when we need to settle on a good-enough option rather than continuing to analyse all the options available to us.

A

emotional

76
Q

_____: representing mental representations for a purpose with people using words, mental images and mental models.

A

Thinking

77
Q

_____: a process whereby arguments/beliefs are generated and evaluated using inductive, deductive and analogical reasoning.

A

Reasoning

Psych 101 (11 decks)

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