Thinking Flashcards
Manipulating mental images for a purpose is known as ______.
Thinking
Thought is an extension of _____ and _____.
perception, memory
Units of thought
_____ _____ are representations that describe, explain or predict how things work
Mental models
Units of thought
Mental images are in the form of _____ images
visual
Units of thought
Objects are classified on the basis of their properties _______ and ____
categories, concept
Units of thought
_____ are groupings based on common properties
categories
Units of thought
_____ are internal mental representation of a category
concepts
Units of thought
_____ involves recognising an object as a member of a category
Categorisation
Units of thought
We categorise objects by: comparison with _____ features and Similarity/dissimilarity to _____.
defining, prototypes
Units of thought
Qualities that are essential for membership of the category are _____ _____
defining features
Units of thought
_____ are abstractions across many instances of a category
Prototypes
Units of thought
_____ are like our most generic template, containing only the most common and essential characteristics
Prototypes
Units of thought
A particularly good example of the category
exemplar
Units of thought
_____ involves flexibility. We use categorisation to both define the _____ of an object and to describe _____.
Categorisation, features, similarities
Units of thought
Categorisation is _____, it enables us to understand our environment faster to speed up _____ solving.
functional, problem
Units of thought
_____ are frequently hierarchically ordered with subconcepts at varying levels of abstraction. Efficient thinking requires choosing the right level of abstraction. Each level differs in its degree of defining detail
Concepts
Units of thought
The _____ level can be defined as “the broadest, most inclusive level at which objects share common attributes that are distinctive of the concept”
basic
Levels of operation.
In other instances people will operate on the _____ or _____ level. These different levels activate different parts of the brain.
subordinate, superordinate
Levels of operation
The _____ level relies on a memory search using language activating the left pre-frontal cortex involved in verbal memory retrieval.
superordinate,
Levels of operation
The _____ level relies on a perceptual search that attempts to match similarities in the object to the concept. The subordinate level results in activation of the right pre-frontal cortex, which is involved in visual attention.
subordinate,
______ shapes our basic categorisation, and can also affect the extent to which people rely on similarity or defining in categorisation
Culture,
What is the process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs
Reasoning
Reasoning
There are two kinds of reasoning:
inductive and deductive
Reasoning
_____ reasoning is the process of using specific observations to create general theories
Inductive
Reasoning
_____ reasoning is the reverse process whereby a set of general theories or premises are applied to specific instances
Deductive
Reasoning
This type of reasoning is from specific observations to general propositions and relies heavily on probabilities
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning
This type of reasoning is done by drawing a conclusion from set of assumptions or premises (e.g., syllogisms). The conclusion is true if the premise is true and reasoning logical.
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning
This type of reasoning depends on both the content and form (abstract or concrete) of the premise
deductive reasoning
Reasoning
_____ and _____ reasoning do not occur in isolation of each other but impact upon each other and are intertwined
Deductive and inductive
Reasoning
Syllogism example
Premise One: All 30-year-old women are blonde
Premise Two: Holly is a 30-year-old woman
Conclusion: Holly is blonde
The reasoning is correct – are the premises logical?
Reasoning
Aspects of deductive reasoning have been shown to differ across cultures: in the _____ there is a high importance placed on solving paradoxes and inconsistencies in the _____ inconsistencies can be more accepted, as each premise is evaluated in its own right rather than in relation to another premise.
West, East
Analogical reasoning
What is the process by which people understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one.
Analogical reasoning
In _____ reasoning the novel and familiar situations must each contain a number of elements that can be mapped onto each other.
analogical
Analogical reasoning is like reasoning by _____
association.
This refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal.
Problem solving
_____ solving involves two states (an _____ state that you wish to change) and a _____ state (the state you wish to transform the initial state into).
Problem, initial, goal
Problem solving
Transformation occurs using ______, which are actions performed to solve the problem. Operators can be mental and/or behavioural, i.e. thinking about something differently or doing something differently
operators
This a _____ ______ example: your initial state is one of feeling like you do not have enough time to study. The goal state you desire is to manage your time well in order to be able to fit in study and feel on top of things (Note: this goal state is well-defined, it contains emotional, and multiple behavioural goals). To obtain these goal states the operators you may use could be any one or more of the following: drawing up a weekly timetable and locating time for study, dropping some other commitments in order to make time if you realise there actually is not enough for study and practicing rewards for making positive changes. This is an example of a well-defined problem.
problem solving
Problems can be defined in two ways
Well-defined
Ill-defined
Problems can be defined in two ways
Problems where the initial state, goal state, and operators are easily determined (e.g., stats problems) are :
Well-defined
Problems can be defined in two ways
Problems that occur when both the information needed to solve the problem and the criteria for determining when the goal state has been met are vague (e.g., leader tasked with ‘improving morale’) are :
Ill-defined
A well-defined problem includes clear understanding of: (3)
(1) initial state(s);
(2) operators; and,
(3) goal state(s).
Problem-solving strategies are guides used for solving problems, name 3
algorithms
mental simulation
hypothesis testing.
Problem-solving strategies
systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a (simple) problem.
Algorithms
Problem-solving strategies
the mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem.
Mental simulation
Problem-solving strategies
making an educated guess about a problem and then testing it.
Hypothesis testing
Barriers to effective problem-solving include: (3)
1) functional fixedness;
2) mental set; and,
3) confirmation bias.
Barriers to effective problem-solving
_____ ____the tendency to fix on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses.
Functional fixedness - For example, if you need to get a book down
Barriers to effective problem-solving
_____ set is the tendency to keep using the same problem solving techniques that have been successful in the past .
Mental - when we continue to use past successful problem-solving techniques even when new and better strategies are possible
Barriers to effective problem-solving
_____ _____ is the tendency to search for confirmation of what we already believe.
Confirmation bias
Decision-making is the process of weighing up the _____ and _____ to make a choice.
pros and cons
According to the information processing model when people make decisions they consider: (1) the utility (_____ _____) of each possible _____; and, (2) the _____ of each outcome occurring (estimated likelihood).
personal value, outcome, probability
According to the information processing model
Ideally, we choose an alternative solution that scores high in both weighed utility (personal value) as well as expected utility (high expectation of achieving this alternative).
Within decision-making
According to the information processing model
____ _____ _____: a combined judgement of the importance of an attribute and the extent to which a given option satisfies it.
Weighted Utility Value
According to the information processing model
_____ Utility: a combined judgement of the weighted utility and the expected probability of obtaining an outcome.
Expected
_____ cognition involves conscious manipulation of mental representations.
Explicit cognition
_____ cognition involves unconscious manipulation of mental representations.
Implicit
______ suggest that people can learn, generalise and discriminate stimuli without conscious thought (implicit and everyday thinking)
Behaviourists
______ theory suggests that unconscious motives and emotions impact on problem solving and decision making, Implicit learning and problem solving
Psychodynamic
_____ and _____ thinking is a different way of understanding thinking and is the product of Behaviourists and Psychodynamic theory
Explicit and implicit
Both explicit and implicit thinking are influenced by our _____ and _____
motivations
emotions
Types of heuristics (3)
Representative heuristic
Availability heuristic
Bounded reality
Heuristics
Heuristics are _____ shortcuts for selecting amongst alternatives, without carefully considering each one (sometimes irrational)
cognitive
Heuristics
_____ heuristic: we match an object to its category
Representative heuristic
Heuristics
_____ _____: we decide that the events that we can easily recall are common and typical
Availability heuristic
Heuristics
_____ _____: people are rationale within the bounds imposed by their environment, goals and abilities – leads to satisficing
Bounded reality
These are _____ _____ _____ assumptions
Thought processing occurs in parallel
Meaning of a mental representation is distributed throughout the brain (neural networks)
Current perception activates neural networks (and multiple, individual nodes)
Parallel Distributed Processing
Parallel Distributed Processing assumptions
_____ _____ satisfaction is the tendency to settle on a cognitive solution that satisfies as many constraints as possible (best fit of data)
Parallel Constraint
Parallel Distributed Processing assumptions
_____ , otherwise known as Parallel Distribution Processing, assumes that multiple thought processes are occurring simultaneously.
Connectionism
Neuropsychology of thinking
The _____ ______ are critical for the processing of thought
frontal lobes
Neuropsychology of thinking
The _____ _____ cortex: plays a central role in working memory and explicit manipulation of representations (conscious thought)
Dorsolateral prefrontal
Neuropsychology of thinking
The _____ _____ cortex: plays a role in the use of emotional reactions to guide decision making and behaviour
Ventromedial prefrontal
Neuropsychology of thinking
Two main regions of the pre-frontal cortex that perform different thought functions are the
1) Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
2) the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
Neuropsychology of thinking
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex handles _____ memory and _____ thought.
working, explicit
Neuropsychology of thinking
The ventromedial prefrontal cortex handles many functions including the use of _____ reactions in decision-making. Emotion is critical in decision making as it can act as an on-off switch that signals when we need to settle on a good-enough option rather than continuing to analyse all the options available to us.
emotional
_____: representing mental representations for a purpose with people using words, mental images and mental models.
Thinking
_____: a process whereby arguments/beliefs are generated and evaluated using inductive, deductive and analogical reasoning.
Reasoning
