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Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

The concept of learning is

A

refers to any enduring change in the way an organise responds based on its experience.

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2
Q

Learning cannot be _______ directly rather it is inferred from _____ that is observed.

A

observed, behaviour

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3
Q

Learning is _____, and modifiable by the _____ and _____

A

environment and experience

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4
Q

The reduction in response strength of a reflex over repeated presentations of the stimulus is know as ______, whereas _____ is the reappearance of the response to the initial stimuli - such as a sudden noise causes an orienting response (startle)

A

Habituation, dishabituation

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5
Q

Fl _____ A type of learning studied by behaviourists. Classical conditioning.

A

Conditioning

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6
Q

Associative learning means that there is an association between one _____ event with another in a _____, so that the first event becomes a _____ for the second, or the first event produces a response from the organism

A

external, sequence, signal

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7
Q

The conditions under which one thought becomes connected, or associated with each other to account for learning and memory is known as _____ law of continuity

A

Aristotle’s

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8
Q

Aristotle’s law of _______ proposes that two events will become connected in the mind if they are experienced close together in time

A

continuity

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9
Q

The Law of similarity states that objects that _____ each other are likely to become _____

A

resemble, associated.

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10
Q

_____ conditioning refers to learning in which an environmental stimulus produces a response in an organism. i.e. clock at 5pm makes you hungry for dinner, Pavlov’s dogs.

A

Classical conditioning

  • occurs when we learn to identify a relationship between two different stimuli
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11
Q

Learning is made up of two types of conditioning they are

A

classical and

operant conditioning

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12
Q

Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)

The learning of a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli is know as _______ conditioning

A

Classical conditioning

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13
Q

Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)

In classical conditioning we learn that a _____ predicts a certain event and we _____ accordingly.

A

stimulus, respond

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14
Q

Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)

In classical conditioning, all responses are reflexes or _____ responses that are elicited by _____ stimuli.

A

autonomic, environmental

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15
Q

The are two forms of associative learning are and operant conditioning.

A

classical - a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with a reflex eliciting stimuli until eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit a response on its own

operant - a certain behavior is either reinforced or punished which results in an altered probability that the behavior will happen again

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16
Q

Classical conditioning can ONLY apply to _____ and ____ response

A

reflexes, autonomic

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17
Q

Classical conditioning

Conditioned responses

A

are learned reflexed that can both be adaptive and maladaptive responses

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18
Q

Classical conditioning

taste aversions or immune responses are _____ responses

A

Conditioned

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19
Q

Principles of Classical Conditioning

_____ _____ - Once an organism has learned to associate a _____ stimulus with a _____ response, it may respond to ____ that resemble the _____ stimuli with a similar response.

A

Stimulus generalisation

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20
Q

Principles of Classical Conditioning

_____ _____ is the learned tendency to respond to a very restricted range of stimuli or to only the one used during training.

A

Stimulus discrimination

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21
Q

Principles of Classical Conditioning

_____ occurs when a CR is weakened by the presentation of the CS without the UCS, that is, the response is extinguished.

A

Extinction

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22
Q

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Spontaneous recovery is the short lived return of a previously extinguished ______ _____

A

Conditioned response

(CR)

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23
Q

Conditioning is a form of _____

A

learning

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24
Q

Classical conditioning.

An unconditioned reflex is

A

a reflex that occurs naturally

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25
Q

Classical conditioning.

An _____ _____ that produces the response in an unconditioned reflex.

A

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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26
Q

Classical conditioning.

An _____ stimulus activates a reflexive response without any _____ having taken place thus the reflex is ______, or _____.

A

unconditioned, learning, unlearned, unconditioned

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27
Q

Classical conditioning.

An _____ _____ is a response that does not have to be learnt.

A

unconditioned response (UCR)

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28
Q

Classical conditioning.

A conditioned response (CR) is a response that has been _____

A

learned

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29
Q

Classical conditioning.

A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that through learning, has come to evoke a _____ _____

A

conditioned response (CR).

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30
Q

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition is known as the initial stage of learning where a CR becomes associated with the CS or the process of acquiring a new _____ between stimuli (food and bell)

A

association

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31
Q

Classical conditioning

_____ occurs when a conditioned response CR is weakened by the presentation of the conditioned stimulus CS, without the US unconditioned stimulus

A

Extinction

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32
Q

Classical conditioning.

The time between the presentation of the CS and the UCS is known as

A

Interstimulus interval

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33
Q

Classical conditioning.

Factors:

  • the interstimulus interval (the time between presentation of the CS and the UCS)
  • the individual’s learning history and
  • prepared learning.
A

Factors that influence classical conditioning

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34
Q

Classical conditioning.

_____ _____ occurs when a stimulus learns to only respond to a restricted range of stimuli, or to only the one used during training.

A

Stimulus discrimination

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35
Q

Classical conditioning.

Blocking refers to

A

the failure of the stimulus to elicit a CR response when paired with another stimulus that already elicits a response

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36
Q

When initial exposure to the neutrals stimulus, without a UCS, slows the process of later learning the CS-UCS association and developing a CR.

A

Latent inhibition

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37
Q

An electrical measure of the amount of sweat on the skin, associated with arousal or anxiety

A

galvanic skin response (GSR)

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38
Q

____ in classical conditioning refers to the process by which a ______ response is weakened by the presentation of the _____ stimuli without the ____ stimuli.

A

Extinction, conditioned, conditioned, unconditioned.

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39
Q

Conditioned taste aversion is where

A

a particular flavour is followed by an illness experience, and as a result that particular flavour is not consumed in the future.

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40
Q

taste aversions can happen

A

after only one trial

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41
Q

Conditioned emotional response example

A

little Albert The fear initially associated with the loud noise was now elicited by the previously neutral stimulus, the white rat.

42
Q

Name the Principles of Classical Conditioning

A

Acquisition
Extinction
Stimulus generalisation
Stimulus discrimination

43
Q

The process of acquiring a new association between stimuli (food & bell)

A

Acquisition

44
Q

Extinctionis the

A

The weakening of a conditioned response

45
Q

Stimulus generalisation when

A

similar stimuli producing similar reactions

46
Q

Stimulus discrimination is the

A

response to stimuli has a restricted range

47
Q

_____ recovery – conditioned response returns after being extinguished

A

Spontaneous

48
Q

The _____ relationship between the CS and UCS is crucial

A

temporal

49
Q

There are 3 types of conditioning.

A

Forward conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Backward conditioning

50
Q

when the onset of the CS precedes the UCS.

A

Forward conditioning

51
Q

Simultaneous conditioning

A

when the CS and UCS are presented at the same time, and

52
Q

when the CS is presented after the UCS.

A

Backward conditioning

53
Q

Forward conditioning has been the most extensively studied by Pavlov and most likely to lead to learning. Whereas, simultaneous conditioning produces moderate effectiveness for learning and backward conditioning is the least effective.

A

.

54
Q

Operant conditioning

_____ conditioning is learning a new association between _____ and its consequences, as opposed to conditioning in which an association is learned between two _____

A

Operant, behaviour, stimuli

55
Q

Operant conditioning is

A

The learning of a new association between behaviour and its consequences.

56
Q

Operant conditioning is learning through _____ and _____.

A

reinforcement, punishment

57
Q

_____ (responses) is voluntary and emitted not elicited.

A

Behaviour

58
Q

Behaviour is modified according to its _____

A

consequences.

59
Q

Operant conditioning

Thorndike’s Law of _____:
States that an animal’s tendency to produce a behaviour depends on that behaviour’s effect on the environment. Behaviour is controlled by consequences.

A

Effect

  • Behaviours that result in positive consequences will be more likely in the future.
  • Behaviours that result in negative consequences will be less likely in the future
60
Q

Operant conditioning

Operants operate on the _____ to bring about some change that leads to a reward. And reward is _____ for behaviour reinforcement.

A

environment, critical

61
Q

Operant conditioning

. _____ argued that reactions were voluntary, and labelled these instrumental responses as operants.

A

B.F. Skinner

62
Q

Operant conditioning

A reinforcing stimulus, or reinforcer, that strengthens or increases the probability of the response that follows

A

Reinforcement

63
Q

Operant conditioning

_____ occurs when the stimulus or event that follows a response weakens it, or makes it less likely to recur. Any aversive (unpleasant) stimulus or event can be a punisher

A

Punishment

64
Q

Operant conditioning

_____ increases the likelihood of
behaviour and _____ decreases the likelihood of behaviour.

A

reinforcement, punishment

65
Q

Operant conditioning

_____ _____ is The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour that makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future. E.g., “Well done”

A

Positive reinforcement

  • an environmental consequence that occurs after an organism has produced a response, which makes the response more likely to recur.
66
Q

Operant conditioning

_____ _____ is The removal of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour which makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future. E.g., nagging, man wearing wedding ring)

A

Negative Reinforcement

67
Q

Operant conditioning

_____ _____ increases the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by a desired stimulus or reinforcer

A

Positive reinforcement

68
Q

Operant conditioning

_____ reinforcement increases the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an aversive stimulus.

A

Negative reinforcement

69
Q

Operant conditioning

Positive Punishment

A

The presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future. E.g., speeding fine.

70
Q

Operant conditioning

The removal of pleasant stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future. E.g., removal of TV watching time.

A

Negative Punishment

71
Q

Operant conditioning

If an adverse stimulus follows a CR and decreases the frequency of that response it is called a _____

A

punisher

72
Q

Operant conditioning

When a behaviour is followed by the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus, thisis called positive _____

A

punishment.

73
Q

Operant conditioning

When a behaviour is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimuli which reduces the likelihood of the reoccurrence of behaviour, this is called _____ punishment

A

negative

74
Q

Operant conditioning

Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished.
Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn an association between the action Operant conditioning and punishment .
Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour. E.g., ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment but peer approval (reinforcement)
Using punishment when the teacher is angry
Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression.

A

Are all issues of punishment

75
Q

Operant conditioning

Reinforcement always increases the probability that a response will recur. In contrast, _____ decreases the probability of a response, through either exposure to an aversive event following the behaviour (positive punishment) or losing or failing to obtain reinforcement previously associated with behaviour (negative punishment). Punishment is commonplace in human affairs but is frequently applied in ways that render it ineffective.

A

Punishment

76
Q

Principle of Operant Conditioning

_____: a procedure in which a complex behaviour is trained/taught by reinforcing close and closer approximations of the desired response - e.g. teaching a child to tie shoelaces

A

Shaping

77
Q

Issues of punishment

A

Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished.
Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn an association between the action and punishment .
Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour. E.g., ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment but peer approval (reinforcement)
Using punishment when the teacher is angry
Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression.

78
Q

There are 3 schedules of reinforcement

A

Continuous Reinforcement Schedules

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules

79
Q

schedules of reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement Schedules -

A

Reinforcer is obtained after every response

80
Q

schedules of reinforcement

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules - Reinforcer is not obtained for every response

A

Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval

81
Q

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules

_____ Ratio: - An organism receives reinforcement at a fixed rate according to the the number of operant responses emitted

  • e.g. Reinforced every ___ response
A

Fixed, 9th

82
Q

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules

_____ Ratio: receives a reward for some percentage of responses, but the number of responses required before each reinforcement is unpredictable

  • e.g. - On average, reinforced _____ every ninth response
A

Variable, after

83
Q

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules

_____ Interval: Reinforced after specific time period has elapsed

A

Fixed

84
Q

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules

_____ Interval: Reinforced after an average time period has elapsed

A

Variable

85
Q

_____ _____ is learning by observing the behaviour of others (models).

A

Observational learning

86
Q

Imitation of a model’s behaviour depends on

A

Prestige of the model
Likeability and attractiveness of the model
Whether the model was rewarded or punished for his/her behaviour (vicarious conditioning)

87
Q

Cognitive-social theory incorporates concepts of conditioning from behaviourism but adds two additional features:

A

a focus on cognition and on social learning.

88
Q

Locus of control:

A

The expectancy of whether or not fate determines outcomes in life

89
Q

Internal locus:

A

Believe that their actions determine their fate

90
Q

External locus:

A

Believe that their lives are governed by forces

91
Q

Learned helplessness

A

The expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events and the motivational and learning deficits that accrue from it.

92
Q

Maier and Seligman claimed that there are three components of learned helplessness.

A

(1) A Motivational impairment
(2) A Cognitive impairment
(3) an Emotional impairment

93
Q

Components of learned helplessness.

A _____ impairment means subjects become less motivated to try and control their environment,

A

Motivational

94
Q

Components of learned helplessness.

A _____ impairment is a reduced ability to learn from one’s experience, learning is slower (if not totally lost)

A

Cognitive

95
Q

Components of learned helplessness.

An _____ impairment is the development of emotional and physical problems (ulcers, etc).

A

Emotional

96
Q

Learned helplessness and depression: Based on Seligman’s work

A

many studies have provided evidence towards the phenomenon of learned helplessness in the lab with humans suffering from depression.

97
Q

To cognitive-social theorists, _____ learning is evidence that knowledge or beliefs about the environment are crucial to the way that animals behave

A

latent

-learning that has occurred but it not currently manifest in behaviour.

98
Q

_____ learning occurs when is where a person learns the consequences of an action by watching someone else’s response

A

Vicarious

99
Q

Operant conditioning.

There are 4 phenomena in particular that help to explain the power of operant conditioning:

A
  1. schedules of reinforcement
  2. discriminative stimuli (stimuli that signal to an organism that particular contingencies of reinforcement are in effect),
  3. the behavioural context and
  4. characteristics of the learner.
100
Q

_____ _____ refers to the way people make sense of bad events.

  • Individuals with a depressive or pessimistic explanatory style see the causes of bad events as internal, stable and global.
  • Expectancies such as locus of control and explanatory stye differ across cultures, since cultural belief systems offer people ready-made ways of interpreting events, and people who live in a society share common experiences (such as work and schooling) that lead to shared beliefs and expectancies.
A

Explanatory style

101
Q

Just as humans and other animals can develop phobias by forming idiosyncratic associations, they can also erroneously associate an operant and an environmental event, a phenomenon Skinner labelled _____ _____

A

superstitious behaviour

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