Learning Flashcards
The concept of learning is
refers to any enduring change in the way an organise responds based on its experience.
Learning cannot be _______ directly rather it is inferred from _____ that is observed.
observed, behaviour
Learning is _____, and modifiable by the _____ and _____
environment and experience
The reduction in response strength of a reflex over repeated presentations of the stimulus is know as ______, whereas _____ is the reappearance of the response to the initial stimuli - such as a sudden noise causes an orienting response (startle)
Habituation, dishabituation
Fl _____ A type of learning studied by behaviourists. Classical conditioning.
Conditioning
Associative learning means that there is an association between one _____ event with another in a _____, so that the first event becomes a _____ for the second, or the first event produces a response from the organism
external, sequence, signal
The conditions under which one thought becomes connected, or associated with each other to account for learning and memory is known as _____ law of continuity
Aristotle’s
Aristotle’s law of _______ proposes that two events will become connected in the mind if they are experienced close together in time
continuity
The Law of similarity states that objects that _____ each other are likely to become _____
resemble, associated.
_____ conditioning refers to learning in which an environmental stimulus produces a response in an organism. i.e. clock at 5pm makes you hungry for dinner, Pavlov’s dogs.
Classical conditioning
- occurs when we learn to identify a relationship between two different stimuli
Learning is made up of two types of conditioning they are
classical and
operant conditioning
Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)
The learning of a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli is know as _______ conditioning
Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)
In classical conditioning we learn that a _____ predicts a certain event and we _____ accordingly.
stimulus, respond
Classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)
In classical conditioning, all responses are reflexes or _____ responses that are elicited by _____ stimuli.
autonomic, environmental
The are two forms of associative learning are and operant conditioning.
classical - a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with a reflex eliciting stimuli until eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit a response on its own
operant - a certain behavior is either reinforced or punished which results in an altered probability that the behavior will happen again
Classical conditioning can ONLY apply to _____ and ____ response
reflexes, autonomic
Classical conditioning
Conditioned responses
are learned reflexed that can both be adaptive and maladaptive responses
Classical conditioning
taste aversions or immune responses are _____ responses
Conditioned
Principles of Classical Conditioning
_____ _____ - Once an organism has learned to associate a _____ stimulus with a _____ response, it may respond to ____ that resemble the _____ stimuli with a similar response.
Stimulus generalisation
Principles of Classical Conditioning
_____ _____ is the learned tendency to respond to a very restricted range of stimuli or to only the one used during training.
Stimulus discrimination
Principles of Classical Conditioning
_____ occurs when a CR is weakened by the presentation of the CS without the UCS, that is, the response is extinguished.
Extinction
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous recovery is the short lived return of a previously extinguished ______ _____
Conditioned response
(CR)
Conditioning is a form of _____
learning
Classical conditioning.
An unconditioned reflex is
a reflex that occurs naturally
Classical conditioning.
An _____ _____ that produces the response in an unconditioned reflex.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Classical conditioning.
An _____ stimulus activates a reflexive response without any _____ having taken place thus the reflex is ______, or _____.
unconditioned, learning, unlearned, unconditioned
Classical conditioning.
An _____ _____ is a response that does not have to be learnt.
unconditioned response (UCR)
Classical conditioning.
A conditioned response (CR) is a response that has been _____
learned
Classical conditioning.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that through learning, has come to evoke a _____ _____
conditioned response (CR).
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition is known as the initial stage of learning where a CR becomes associated with the CS or the process of acquiring a new _____ between stimuli (food and bell)
association
Classical conditioning
_____ occurs when a conditioned response CR is weakened by the presentation of the conditioned stimulus CS, without the US unconditioned stimulus
Extinction
Classical conditioning.
The time between the presentation of the CS and the UCS is known as
Interstimulus interval
Classical conditioning.
Factors:
- the interstimulus interval (the time between presentation of the CS and the UCS)
- the individual’s learning history and
- prepared learning.
Factors that influence classical conditioning
Classical conditioning.
_____ _____ occurs when a stimulus learns to only respond to a restricted range of stimuli, or to only the one used during training.
Stimulus discrimination
Classical conditioning.
Blocking refers to
the failure of the stimulus to elicit a CR response when paired with another stimulus that already elicits a response
When initial exposure to the neutrals stimulus, without a UCS, slows the process of later learning the CS-UCS association and developing a CR.
Latent inhibition
An electrical measure of the amount of sweat on the skin, associated with arousal or anxiety
galvanic skin response (GSR)
____ in classical conditioning refers to the process by which a ______ response is weakened by the presentation of the _____ stimuli without the ____ stimuli.
Extinction, conditioned, conditioned, unconditioned.
Conditioned taste aversion is where
a particular flavour is followed by an illness experience, and as a result that particular flavour is not consumed in the future.
taste aversions can happen
after only one trial
Conditioned emotional response example
little Albert The fear initially associated with the loud noise was now elicited by the previously neutral stimulus, the white rat.
Name the Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
Extinction
Stimulus generalisation
Stimulus discrimination
The process of acquiring a new association between stimuli (food & bell)
Acquisition
Extinctionis the
The weakening of a conditioned response
Stimulus generalisation when
similar stimuli producing similar reactions
Stimulus discrimination is the
response to stimuli has a restricted range
_____ recovery – conditioned response returns after being extinguished
Spontaneous
The _____ relationship between the CS and UCS is crucial
temporal
There are 3 types of conditioning.
Forward conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Backward conditioning
when the onset of the CS precedes the UCS.
Forward conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
when the CS and UCS are presented at the same time, and
when the CS is presented after the UCS.
Backward conditioning
Forward conditioning has been the most extensively studied by Pavlov and most likely to lead to learning. Whereas, simultaneous conditioning produces moderate effectiveness for learning and backward conditioning is the least effective.
.
Operant conditioning
_____ conditioning is learning a new association between _____ and its consequences, as opposed to conditioning in which an association is learned between two _____
Operant, behaviour, stimuli
Operant conditioning is
The learning of a new association between behaviour and its consequences.
Operant conditioning is learning through _____ and _____.
reinforcement, punishment
_____ (responses) is voluntary and emitted not elicited.
Behaviour
Behaviour is modified according to its _____
consequences.
Operant conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of _____:
States that an animal’s tendency to produce a behaviour depends on that behaviour’s effect on the environment. Behaviour is controlled by consequences.
Effect
- Behaviours that result in positive consequences will be more likely in the future.
- Behaviours that result in negative consequences will be less likely in the future
Operant conditioning
Operants operate on the _____ to bring about some change that leads to a reward. And reward is _____ for behaviour reinforcement.
environment, critical
Operant conditioning
. _____ argued that reactions were voluntary, and labelled these instrumental responses as operants.
B.F. Skinner
Operant conditioning
A reinforcing stimulus, or reinforcer, that strengthens or increases the probability of the response that follows
Reinforcement
Operant conditioning
_____ occurs when the stimulus or event that follows a response weakens it, or makes it less likely to recur. Any aversive (unpleasant) stimulus or event can be a punisher
Punishment
Operant conditioning
_____ increases the likelihood of
behaviour and _____ decreases the likelihood of behaviour.
reinforcement, punishment
Operant conditioning
_____ _____ is The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour that makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future. E.g., “Well done”
Positive reinforcement
- an environmental consequence that occurs after an organism has produced a response, which makes the response more likely to recur.
Operant conditioning
_____ _____ is The removal of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour which makes the behaviour more likely to occur in the future. E.g., nagging, man wearing wedding ring)
Negative Reinforcement
Operant conditioning
_____ _____ increases the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by a desired stimulus or reinforcer
Positive reinforcement
Operant conditioning
_____ reinforcement increases the frequency of a response that is regularly and reliably followed by the termination of an aversive stimulus.
Negative reinforcement
Operant conditioning
Positive Punishment
The presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future. E.g., speeding fine.
Operant conditioning
The removal of pleasant stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future. E.g., removal of TV watching time.
Negative Punishment
Operant conditioning
If an adverse stimulus follows a CR and decreases the frequency of that response it is called a _____
punisher
Operant conditioning
When a behaviour is followed by the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus, thisis called positive _____
punishment.
Operant conditioning
When a behaviour is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimuli which reduces the likelihood of the reoccurrence of behaviour, this is called _____ punishment
negative
Operant conditioning
Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished.
Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn an association between the action Operant conditioning and punishment .
Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour. E.g., ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment but peer approval (reinforcement)
Using punishment when the teacher is angry
Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression.
Are all issues of punishment
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement always increases the probability that a response will recur. In contrast, _____ decreases the probability of a response, through either exposure to an aversive event following the behaviour (positive punishment) or losing or failing to obtain reinforcement previously associated with behaviour (negative punishment). Punishment is commonplace in human affairs but is frequently applied in ways that render it ineffective.
Punishment
Principle of Operant Conditioning
_____: a procedure in which a complex behaviour is trained/taught by reinforcing close and closer approximations of the desired response - e.g. teaching a child to tie shoelaces
Shaping
Issues of punishment
Learner may not understand which operant behaviour is being punished.
Learner may come to fear the ‘punisher’, rather than learn an association between the action and punishment .
Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour. E.g., ‘acting out’ in class may result in punishment but peer approval (reinforcement)
Using punishment when the teacher is angry
Punitive aggression may lead to future aggression.
There are 3 schedules of reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement Schedules
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules
schedules of reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement Schedules -
Reinforcer is obtained after every response
schedules of reinforcement
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules - Reinforcer is not obtained for every response
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules
_____ Ratio: - An organism receives reinforcement at a fixed rate according to the the number of operant responses emitted
- e.g. Reinforced every ___ response
Fixed, 9th
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules
_____ Ratio: receives a reward for some percentage of responses, but the number of responses required before each reinforcement is unpredictable
- e.g. - On average, reinforced _____ every ninth response
Variable, after
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules
_____ Interval: Reinforced after specific time period has elapsed
Fixed
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules
_____ Interval: Reinforced after an average time period has elapsed
Variable
_____ _____ is learning by observing the behaviour of others (models).
Observational learning
Imitation of a model’s behaviour depends on
Prestige of the model
Likeability and attractiveness of the model
Whether the model was rewarded or punished for his/her behaviour (vicarious conditioning)
Cognitive-social theory incorporates concepts of conditioning from behaviourism but adds two additional features:
a focus on cognition and on social learning.
Locus of control:
The expectancy of whether or not fate determines outcomes in life
Internal locus:
Believe that their actions determine their fate
External locus:
Believe that their lives are governed by forces
Learned helplessness
The expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events and the motivational and learning deficits that accrue from it.
Maier and Seligman claimed that there are three components of learned helplessness.
(1) A Motivational impairment
(2) A Cognitive impairment
(3) an Emotional impairment
Components of learned helplessness.
A _____ impairment means subjects become less motivated to try and control their environment,
Motivational
Components of learned helplessness.
A _____ impairment is a reduced ability to learn from one’s experience, learning is slower (if not totally lost)
Cognitive
Components of learned helplessness.
An _____ impairment is the development of emotional and physical problems (ulcers, etc).
Emotional
Learned helplessness and depression: Based on Seligman’s work
many studies have provided evidence towards the phenomenon of learned helplessness in the lab with humans suffering from depression.
To cognitive-social theorists, _____ learning is evidence that knowledge or beliefs about the environment are crucial to the way that animals behave
latent
-learning that has occurred but it not currently manifest in behaviour.
_____ learning occurs when is where a person learns the consequences of an action by watching someone else’s response
Vicarious
Operant conditioning.
There are 4 phenomena in particular that help to explain the power of operant conditioning:
- schedules of reinforcement
- discriminative stimuli (stimuli that signal to an organism that particular contingencies of reinforcement are in effect),
- the behavioural context and
- characteristics of the learner.
_____ _____ refers to the way people make sense of bad events.
- Individuals with a depressive or pessimistic explanatory style see the causes of bad events as internal, stable and global.
- Expectancies such as locus of control and explanatory stye differ across cultures, since cultural belief systems offer people ready-made ways of interpreting events, and people who live in a society share common experiences (such as work and schooling) that lead to shared beliefs and expectancies.
Explanatory style
Just as humans and other animals can develop phobias by forming idiosyncratic associations, they can also erroneously associate an operant and an environmental event, a phenomenon Skinner labelled _____ _____
superstitious behaviour
