Memory Flashcards
Name the process by which we take something we have observed (encountered), and convert it into a form we can store, retrieve and use.
Memory
There are 3 processes of memory and they are
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Name that process of memory
_____ is the process whereby information is placed within a context or code for possible later retrieval.
Encoding
Name that process of memory
What is the process of material being transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory.
Storage
- The retention of encoded information over time.
- Material can be stored in long-term memory indefinitely.
Name that process of memory
What is the process of information being recalled from long-term memory to the STM memory
Retrieval
- Ease of retrieval depends on a number of factors such as how effectively material was encoded initially, and how often it is retrieved
A mental representation is a _____ _____ of a stimulus or category of stimuli
mental model
Mental Representations include
Sensory representations
Verbal representations
Motoric representations
These enable us to recall the general characteristics of something that is represented in a variety of forms, such as visual image, conceptual, or physical movements.
Mental Representations
Mental Representations
_____ representations are the immediate, very brief storage of information in a SENSORY mode (vision, sound, taste, smell and touch)
SENSORY
For example, the image of where the USB plug is on your computer. This visual image enables you to immediately plug it in whereas the first time you need it you may have had to search for it.
Motoric representations are a a momentary SENSORY memory of physical stimuli or
the ability to physically remember and repeat body actions or forms.
The Information Processing Model of Memory consists of three stores
Sensory Registers
Short-term Memory (STM) Long-term Memory (LTM)
The Information Processing Model of Memory also highlights where the processes of _____ and _____ occur
rehearsal, retrieval
Information Processing Model
Rehearsal occurs in in
STM
Information Processing Model
Retrieval occurs from the ____ to the ____
LTM, STM
Name the Information Processing Model steps
stimulus enters sensory registers where it is either lost or deemed important enough to be processed through the STM. Again information is either lost or rehearsed so as to aid storage in the LTM. Retrieval occurs from LTM to STM.
The Information Processing Model
_____ registers Hold information about a perceived stimulus for a fraction of a second after the stimulus disappears
Sensory
The Information Processing Model
There is only one _____ register for every sensory _____.
sensory, system
The Information Processing Model
Within the SENSORY registers is
Iconic storage
and
Echoic storage
A momentary SENSORY memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Iconic storage
a momentary SENSORY memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Echoic storage
The SENSORY registers have a very _____ duration (~1/2 sec hold) but potentially _____ capacity.
limited, unlimited
The Information Processing Model
Information from the sensory registers that is attended to moves into the
Short term Memory (STM)
The Information Processing Model
Stimuli that does not make a significant impression will not be transferred to short-term memory but rather be dropped from
the sensory register.
The Information Processing Model
Once information makes it to Short-term Memory it is held there for roughly __ to __
20-30 seconds
The process of _____ keeps information in the _____, and also increases the likelihood information will be stored in the ___ more effectively leading to better ____.
rehearsal, STM, LTM, recall
Short term memory is characterised by the following characteristics:
(1) brief;
(2) limited in capacity; and,
(3) quickly accessed.
Types of rehearsal
There are two types of rehearsal
maintenance rehearsal
elaborative rehearsal
Types of rehearsal
_____ rehearsal involves encoding that requires attention and conscious effort like memory techniques.
Self Reference effect - improved recall of information we can relate to ourselves (semantic encoding)
elaborative
Types of rehearsal
_____ rehearsal involves the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness (STM) or to encode it for storage. The hour before bed is best but not the seconds before.
maintenance
- is useful for STM
Long-term Memory (LTM)
The representations of facts, images, actions and skills that may persist over a _____ (potentially limitless duration)
lifetime
Extracting information from the LTM is called
retrieval
A tendency to recall best the last (recency) and first items (primacy) in a a list.
Serial Position Curve
Serial Position Curve: Is where the primacy effect reflects ____, and recency, that is comprised of a number of modules, which are discrete but interdependent (parallel processing),
effects reflects ___
LTM, STM
Originally memory was conceptualised in terms of the _____ _____ Model. This model proposes that the stages of memory occur in a _____ order i.e. one at a time from sensory registers ->STM -> LTM. But we now know that ______ information is processes unconsciously, rather than consciously in the STM. Also, what information is deemed important enough to move from the sensory register to STM is influenced by LTM, this means that LTM may be _____ before STM rather than the other way round as indicated by the Serial Processing Model. Information is more likely to be deemed important if it relates to information already stored in _____.
Serial Processing, sequential, sensory, activated, LTM
Memory is no longer thought of in terms of a serial processing model but is now thought to be
comprised of a number of modules which are discrete but interdependent (parallel processing).
In line with a neuropsychological view of memory processing we now know that memory consists of
a series of interdependent modules each responsible for a different kind of processing of in-coming information and remembering
When we simultaneously hear thunder the sound is processed by our temporal lobe which processes auditory sound while the lightening is processed by our occipital and lower temporal lobes. This means that when we remember an event we remember it as ???
It as one experience that has in fact been processed simultaneously by different parts of our brain
Memory is no longer likened to the processing of a computer it is now ____ as ____
mind, brain.
working memory consists of two components:
(1) temporary storage (STM)
(2) mental control.
Working memory is a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming information and of information retrieved from long-term memory (hold 1 task at a time) or
the temporary storage and processing of information that can be used to solve problems, respond to environmental demands or achieve goals.
Unlike ____ which is seen as a single storage unit, _____ memory is viewed as having multiple _____ with the storage system and processing systems NOT _____ for space.
STM, working, systems, competing
Working Memory
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed that memory consists of three memory systems:
(1) a visual memory store;
(2) a verbal memory store; and,
(3) a “central executive that controls and manipulates the information these two short-term stores hold in mind”
Working Memory
The _____ _____ controls the flow and processing of information (limited capacity) to and from the verbal phonological stores and visuospatial sketchpad.
Central executive
Working Memory
The visuospatial sketchpad (visual memory store)
is a temporary image (__-__ seconds) that stores information about the location and nature of objects
20–30
Working Memory
Verbal memory store (phonological loop)
Involves storage of verbal items (equates to STM). It has limited capacity.
Neuropsychology of Working Memory
Working memory is thought to be directed by the _____ cortex, _____ and _____ working memory activate different _____ regions of the brain. This demonstrates the independence of different components of working memory.
prefrontal, Verbal, visual, cortical
Working Memory and LTM
Evidence supports a distinction between working memory and LTM in that people can have severe deficits in working memory without LTM being affected and vice-versa.
However these components of memory are intertwined. Working memory draws on information stored in LTM. LTM activation occurs via working memory.
Working Memory and LTM
Using knowledge in the LTM organising items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automaticallyr easier comprehension
Chunking - increase capacity of working memory
Varieties of LTM
Within LTM there are at least two types of information stored, they are:
procedural and declarative
Varieties of LTM
Declarative memory has two subtypes of memory
Semantic
Episodic
Varieties of LTM
Within LTM _____ memory is memory for facts and events which can be stated or declared.
Declarative
Varieties of LTM
Within LTM _____ memory is memory for the ‘how to’ of skills or procedures
Procedural
Varieties of LTM
Within LTM There are also two ways that memory can be expressed, _____ (i.e., without our conscious awareness) and _____ (i.e., with our conscious awareness).
implicitly, explicitly
Varieties of LTM
Generic or _____ memory is general world knowledge or facts
semantic
Varieties of LTM
_____ Memory is memories of specific events which is autobiographical in nature
Episodic
Varieties of LTM
People express knowledge in two ways
Explicit memory
Implicit memory
Varieties of LTM
This kind of memory is expressed through conscious recollection (e.g., remembering telephone numbers)
Explicit memory:
Varieties of LTM
This kind of memory is expressed in behaviour but does not require conscious recollection (e.g., driving a car)
Implicit memory:
Varieties of LTM
Explicit memory Involves the conscious retrieval of information known as ____ and ____
Recall and recognition
Varieties of LTM -Explicit Memory
Recall is the spontaneous conscious recollection of information from the ____.
LTM
Name areas of the brain that are involved in LTM
Pre-frontal cortex Parietal cortex Amygdala Hippocampus Temporal cortex Occipital cortex
Areas of the brain that are involved in LTM
Pre-frontal cortex is involved in
the working memory, procedural memory and aspects of episodic memory.
Areas of the brain that are involved in LTM
This structure is involved in the creation of mental representations.
Parietal cortex
Areas of the brain that are involved in LTM
The _____ is involved in consolidating explicit and declarative memory
Amygdala
Areas of the brain that are involved in LTM
This structure is critical for creating new explicit memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex.
Hippocampus
Areas of the brain that are involved in LTM
The _____ cortex is involved in the creation of mental representations.
temporal
Areas of the brain that are involved in LTM
_____ cortex is involved in creation of mental representations.
Occipital
Studies of everyday memory examine
- The function of memory and our intent as we learn information
- The emotional significance of memory
- Prospective aspect of memory (memory for things that need to be done in the future)
The storage of information in LTM requires that it be cast into a representational form otherwise known as
encoding
_____ is the process whereby information is converted into representational form, which enables later retrieval.
Encoding
Encoding in Long-Term Memory
There are two levels of processing.
shallow processing
deep processing
Encoding in Long-Term Memory
This involves focusing on the syntax or format of information.
shallow processing
Encoding in Long-Term Memory
Deep processing focuses on the meaning of the _____.
stimulus
Information considered useful to everyday tasks is given more room in the ______.
hippocampus.
Long Term Memory
Memory that is for things that need to be done in the future is know as ______ memory.
prospective memory
Long Term Memory - Memory that is for things from the past is known as:
_____ memory is where the content to be remembered (people, words, events, etc) is in the past, i.e. the recollection of past episodes. It includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory, and declarative memory in general, although it can be either explicit or implicit.
retrospective memory
- such as lists of words we encountered 20 minutes earlier.
Encoding in Long-Term Memory refers to
The storage of information in LTM requires that it be cast into a representational form (encoded)
Encoding in Long-Term Memory
Levels of processing
Shallow processing
Deep processing
Long-Term Memory
Shallow processing focuses on the
physical characteristics of the stimulus
Long-Term Memory
Deep processing focuses on the
meaning of the stimulus
Encoding is the process whereby information is
converted into representational form, which enables later retrieval.
Long-Term Memory
_____ processing, which involves focusing on the syntax, or format of information.
shallow
- For example, focusing on which words are included in a sentence
Long-Term Memory
_____ processing, which involves focusing on the meaning of the words and sentence meaning as a whole
deep,
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The ease of retrieval of a memory depends on a match between the way information was encoded and how it is later retrieved is a phenomenon known as the
Encoding Specificity Principle
Long-Term Memory
superficial details = shallow processing
meaningful information = deep processing
An extension of this view is that memory is simply a by-product of perceiving and thinking which lays down a neural pathway. When the reason for retrieval conforms with the original processing style the connections are easily activated.
Cues in the retrieval context match cues in the original encoding context thus facilitating retrieval.
Retrieval cues
The theory that information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieved in the same emotional state
Mood (state) congruent memory
Information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieved in the same context is known as
Context dependent memory
relearning
Better memory retention when rehearsal occurs over a longer interval is know as the ______ effect.
Spacing
The spacing effect -the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better LONG-TERM retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Devices and systematic strategies used for remembering information
Mnemonic devices
-memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Devices and systematic strategies used for remembering information
Mnemonic devices
- Method of Loci:
- SQ4R Method: Survey, question, read, recite and review, and write.
Devices and systematic strategies used for remembering information
Method of Loci:
uses visual imagery as a memory aid
These make encoding and retrieval easier because they connect new information with already stored information
Networks of association
_____ may be thoughts, images, concepts, propositions, smells, tastes, emotions or any other piece of information. Because one node can have connections to many other nodes, it can lead to tremendously complex associations.
Nodes
The network of association are composed of
interconnected nodes
What allows one to add concepts to existing networks
Mnemonic devices
Spreading activation
Activating one node in a network triggers activation in closely related nodes.
Patterns of thought , or organised knowledge structures, that render the environment relatively predictable are called
schemas
Efficient retrieval of information requires that nodes are organised in some logical way.
Hierarchical storage is one such way.
Schemas affect the way people remember in two ways:
By influencing the way information is encoded
By shaping the way information is reconstructed
_____ influence initial ____ by influencing how we interpret information, they can be like _____ that bias our thinking
Schemas, encoding, filters
‘Seven Sins of Memory’
Transience: memories \_\_\_\_\_ with time Absent-mindedness: need to pay \_\_\_\_\_ to remember Misattribution: source \_\_\_\_\_ Suggestibility: thinking we remember Bias: \_\_\_\_\_ in recall Persistence: recurring \_\_\_\_\_ Forgetting: inability to \_\_\_\_\_
fade, attention, amnesia, distortions, memories, remember
Many of Schacter’s “sins” stem from adaptive memory processes that go awry. For example, if memory were not transient or temporary, our minds would eventually overflow with irrelevant information.
Who documented the rate of forgetting of information.
Ebbinghaus
The LTM can show errors and _____. Memories can be primed so that people _____ they have experienced something they have not. People can also have certain biases for remembering _____ information (and even inflating this memory); _____ information however may be more difficult to retrieve or may be recalled in a minimal way.
biases, believe, positive, negative
Theories of Forgetting
Decay theory
Interference theory
Theories of Forgetting
Decay theory proposes that people forget because a piece of information is not _____ frequently enough to maintain the _____ pathway to that memory. In this sense _____ memories make way or new useful memories.
retrieved, neural, obsolete
we forget due to a gradual loss of physiological changes due to learning
Theories of Forgetting
This Interference theory conceptualised that there is conflict between new and old memories. Name the 2 ways this happens
Proactive
Retroactive
Theories of Forgetting
______ interference - The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information(present forgotten)
proactive interference
- occurs when previously learned information is lost because it is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information
Theories of Forgetting
_______ interference - The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (past forgotten)
retroactive interference
- occurs when current information is lost because it is mixed up with previously learned, similar information
_____, _____ or _____ rehearsal helps transfer information from STM to LTM stores
Rehearsal, maintenance, elaborative
Memory is a _____ process that mingles _____ of actual experience with general knowledge
reconstructive, representations
STM Holds a small amount of information (limited capacity of approximately _ items) for a short period of time (limited duration of approximately __–__ seconds)
7, 20, 30
Loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia; eg a soldier’s forgetting events immediately before a shell burst nearby, injuring him.
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to store new memories after a traumatic event
anterograde amnesia
inability of children below age three to form memories due to a lack of brain development
infantile amnesia
Ebbinghaus found the more time spent rehearsing a skill initially, the less time it takes to relearn the next day or later; in order for it to be stored in our long term memory, rehearsal after the skill is attained is essential.
Retention Curve
_____ memories, which are memories of highly aroused or significant events, it has been found that these memories require adrenalin activity in the brain to occur.
flashbulb
