Motivation Flashcards
_____ and Emotion are important concepts in psychology as they relate to what _____ people to pursue some things and not others
Motivation, drives
Name the driving force behind behaviour that leads us to pursue some things and avoid others
Motivation
Motives reflect these 2 needs
Biological needs
Psychosocial needs
Motives cannot be observed but are inferred by our _____
behaviour
Motivation is a driving force for various _____ that lead humans to pursue or chase one thing over another.
behaviours
Motives vary from person to person, but most motives can be described as either _____ or _____
biological, psychosocial
_____ motives includes basic needs such ashunger, thirst and sex.
Biological
Other motives reflect _____ needs, such as relationships, power or achievement.
plus mastery, self-esteem, affiliation and intimacy.
psychosocial
One component of motivation is _____: the goal that people want to pursue or avoid
direction
Another component of motivation is _____, which refers to how strongly you might want to do something.
strength
Motivation must consider basic needs. These are the extent to which people are driven by _____ needs or pulled by _____ goals
internal, external
Another issue of motivation is whether motivation is driven by _____ or influenced by _____ and the _____
biology, culture, environment
These are important needs in motivation that should be considered: (3)
Thoughts
Feelings
Arousal
The Psychodynamic Perspective emphasises the _____ basis of motivation
biological
Psychodynamic Perspective
The most distinctive aspect of the psychodynamic theory is that motives are _____
unconscious
Psychodynamic Perspective
_____ argued that we are motivated by internal _____ states (drives) that build up until satisfied
Freud, tension,
Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud argued that there are two basic human drives:
sex and aggression
Psychodynamic Perspective
Which drive relates to a desire for lust, love, and intimacy while
Sex drive
Psychodynamic Perspective
Which drive relates to an impulse to control other people and the environment.
Aggressive drive
Psychodynamic Perspective
Subsequent psychodynamic theorists argue for:
Need for ____ __ _____
Need for _____-_____
relatedness to others
self-esteem
Psychodynamic Perspective
Contemporary psychodynamic theorists have rejected Freud’s notion of drives in favour of the notions of _____ and ____
fears, wishes
Psychodynamic Perspective
Wishes relate to a _____ state that is generally associated with some _____ or arousal.
desire, emotion
Psychodynamic Perspective
If a wish is achieved then it becomes _____, that is, less intense.
deactivated
Psychodynamic Perspective
Fears are represented by an _____ state.
undesired
Psychodynamic Perspective
A child might have a fear of being punished (which is fairly normal), but a child might also have a less obvious fear of ‘If I don’t behave my mum won’t love me anymore”. This means fears range from the ____ to the ____ _____.
obvious to the less obvious.
Psychodynamic Perspective
Drives can be _____, even though they influence our _____.
unconscious, behaviour
Psychodynamic Perspective
Who argued that a person can be unaware of their own motives for their behaviours.
Freud
Motivation can be _____ and _____ at the same time.
unconscious, conscious
What does TAT stand for
Thematic Apperception Test
One test that is used to uncover unconscious motives is Morgan and Murray’s (1935) _ _ _
TAT - Thematic Apperception Test
The TAT consists of a series of pictures about which someone is asked to make up a story. The stories are then rated for _____ themes and have been found to be predictive of long-term _____ trends
motivational, behavioural
TAT stories are generally rated (or coded) for motivational themes such as ____, ____, ____ or _____
success, achievement, power, affiliation
Learning theory is the _____ way of explaining motivation
behaviourists
Human beings and animals are motivated to (1)
to produce behaviours that are rewarded by the environment
Human beings and animals are motivated to (2)
to avoid behaviours that are punishable
Learning theory proposes that the internal state of the organism influences reinforcement - hungry pigeon analogy-
- a hungry pigeon will peck for the pellets of food, while a pigeon that is already satisfied will not
All biological organisms have needs (____, _____, and _____) and, from a behaviourist perspective, unfulfilled needs lead to drives
food, drink and sex,
_____ _____ theory argues that we behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce drives
Drive reduction,
Drives are defined as motivational states that result from _____ deficit or needs and instigate _____ to reduce those needs.
physiological, behaviour
Behaviourists state that there are 2 kinds of drives:
Primary drives
Secondary drives
Behavioural perspective
_____ drives are the innate ones such as hunger, thirst and sex. They are based on physiological need states.
Primary,
Behavioural perspective
Secondary drives (also known as acquired drives) are learned through _____ conditioning or mechanisms such as modelling, and this is through their association with primary drives
classical
- in other words secondary drives are originally a neutral stimulus that becomes associated with drive reduction hense it becomes a motivator.
Behavioural perspective
A good example of _____ drives is wanting money when you are short of cash this might become a secondary drive. However, while the need for money is not a physiological need, it is associated with the reduction of hunger (i.e., money buys food).
secondary ,
_____ approaches to motivation often focus on goals, that is, desired outcomes established through social learning,
Cognitive
Cognitive theories of motivation are:
Expectancy-value theory
Goal-setting theory
Cognitive theories of motivation
What theory? - Behaviour is the result of two types of cognitions - the individual’s expectation that a behaviour will result in achieving some goal, and the value of that goal to the individual.
Expectancy-value theory
Cognitive theories of motivation
The _____-setting theory is used widely by organisational psychologists interested in workers motivation. People establish goals which specify _____ _____ that are in some way discrepant from their current situation.
Goal, desired outcomes
Cognitive theories of motivation
Expectancy-value theory:
motivation is a function of the value people place on an outcome AND the extent to which they think they can achieve it.
Cognitive theories of motivation
Goal-setting theory:
goals represent desired outcomes that differ in some way from a person’s current situation
Cognitive theories of motivation
Cognitive goals regulate much of human _____.
behaviour
Cognitive theories of motivation
The cognitive perspective’s idea of intrinsic _____ is that people enjoy and are interested in performing certain behaviours ____ expecting or taking a reward.
motivation, without
Cognitive theories of motivation
_____ _____ refers to the enjoyment of and interest in a behaviour for its own sake.
Intrinsic motivation
Cognitive theories of motivation
- Self-determination theory describes 3 innate needs:
competence, autonomy and relatedness
Cognitive theories of motivation
- _____-_____ theory suggest that Fulfilment increases intrinsic motivation
self-determination,
Cognitive theories of motivation
Self-determination example, if our need for _____ is satisfied by participating in voluntary work, then this may increase our _____ motivation to take part in such activities.
relatedness, intrinsic
Cognitive Perspective
Implicit motives are those which are activated and expressed _____ of conscious awareness
outside
Cognitive Perspective
_____ motives- If an individual frequently chooses the same goal in a certain situations (e.g., trying to look smart in school), then that goal becomes associated with the situation. As a result, whenever that situation arises the goal state will be activated and guide behaviour, whether or not the person has any conscious awareness of the intention.
Implicit, .
Humanistic perspective -
WHO proposed a hierarchy of needs in that some needs are extremely pressing because they are basic to survival?
Maslow
Humanistic perspective
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs are
5 Self-actualisation (creative art, service to others) 4 Esteem (respect from peers) 3 Love or belongingness (intimacy) 2 Safety (housing, money) 1 Physiological (hunger thirst)
Humanistic Perspectives - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The needs at the bottom of the pyramid are the fundamental ____-logical and safety needs
, physio
Humanistic Perspectives
_____ needs take precedence over any higher need
Lower,
Humanistic Perspectives - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Once the lower need is reliably fulfilled, the person moves on to the next level of needs, which then assume _____, levels as these needs are NOT _____ NEEDS. Rather, they are _____ NEEDS, whereby they are motives to expand one’s skills and abilities.
, priority, DEFICIENCY, GROWTH
Humanistic Perspectives - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
People are not all that likely to reach Maslow’s level of ____-_____. According to Maslow, people can spend their lives focused on motives at one level of the hierarchy and not develop beyond it
self-actualisation
Evolutionary Perspective of motivation
Early theorists suggested behaviour was governed by instincts: fixed patterns of behaviour produced without learning
Evolutionary Perspective
Contemporary theorists argue that there are multiple motivational systems related to:
Survival
Reproduction
The evolutionary perspective derives from _____ theory.
instinct
Evolutionary Perspective
Instincts -
Fixed patterns of behaviour that animals produce without learning.
Evolutionary Perspective
Instinctive behaviour is fixed rather than flexible and instincts are not under the _____ control of the individual.
, conscious
Evolutionary Perspective
Contemporary evolutionary theorists contend that human motivational systems have been selected by nature for their ability to maximise _____ _____
reproductive success
Behaviourist Perspective
From a behaviourist perspective, why do people sun bake when they know it can cause wrinkles or sun cancer?
Maybe because they are reinforced to because of the compliments they get for their tanned complexion (secondary or learned).
Cognitive Perspective
From a cognitive perspective why might people smoke even though there are health risks associated with the behaviour.?
a person might smoke because they place great value on smoking (i.e., they enjoy it) and they know they can do it quite easily (expectancy value theory).
Eating and motivation
_____ is a behaviour in which we consume food to supply energy, minerals and vitamins.
Eating
Eating and motivation
Metabolism has 2 phases:
Absorptive phase.
Fasting phase.
Eating and motivation
Food is ingested, energy is extracted and stored as either glycogen or fat.
Absorptive phase.
Eating and motivation
Glycogen is converted to glucose for use by the body
Fasting phase.
Eating and motivation
On a basic level, the motivation to eat is _____ based
biologically
Eating and motivation
When we do eat, for whatever reason, the ingestion of food leads to a sequence of _____ events. The body transforms food into ____ for moving muscles, maintaining body heat, operating the nervous system, and building and maintaining organ tissue. Much of that energy comes from _____, a simple sugar.
metabolic, energy, glucose
Eating and motivation
In the ____ phase, the person is ingesting food. During this phase, the body runs on some of the food it is _____ but puts additional reserve into short and long term stores as either glycogen (complex sugar) or fat.
absorptive, absorbing
Eating and motivation
In the_____ phase, when the person is not eating, the body _____ its short and long term reserves into energy.
fasting, converts
Overview of Metabolism
_____ is an important part of the absorptive and fasting cycle
Homeostasis
Metabolism
The _____ is the primary structure of the brain responsible for signalling hunger, satiety (feeling full) and aiding in maintaining homeostasis
hypothalamus
Metabolism
During the _____ phase, the person ingests food. The _____ detects rising glucose rates in the bloodstream and activates the pancreas, which secretes insulin.
Insulin allows cells to absorb and convert glucose into energy for their use. Insulin is also required for the liver to convert glucose into glycogen to provide a short-term energy reservoir.
absorptive, hypothalamus
Metabolism
In the _____ phase, when the individual is not eating, the hypothalamus detects falling glucose levels and activates the pancreas. The pancreas now secretes glucagon, which helps convert the glycogen in the liver into glucose, which the cells in the body can _____.
fasting, metabolise
Homeostasis
The tendency of the body to maintain constancy of the internal environment
_____ requires mechanisms for detecting the state of the system and correcting the internal state if not ideal.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Behaviour can serve as part of the homeostatic process:
Blood sugar levels dip we _____
Body temperature goes up we ___________________
we eat
we take off a layer of clothes and look for a cold drink
_____ refers to the body’s tendency to maintain an internal equilibrium that permits cells to live and function
Homeostasis
Homeostasis literally means ‘standing still’ and we have these _____ mechanisms for detecting the state of the system – determining whether the body has had enough _____. If not, to correct this situation and to _____ the system to the desired state of functioning, we are motivated to search for food.
inbuilt, nutrients, restore
What turns hunger on
Psychological hunger is caused by dropping levels of _____ and lipids in the bloodstream (detected by brain and liver)
glucose
What turns hunger on
_____ hypothalamus plays role in switching ‘on’ eating behaviour
Lateral,
What turns hunger on
_____ hypothalamus plays role in switching ‘off’ eating
Ventromedial
What turns hunger on
Damage to the _____ hypothalamus leads to overeating and obesity.
ventromedial
What turns hunger on
Both regions of the hypothalamus contain chemicals that can turn eating off and on, and both require substantial input from ____- stem circuits that integrate information about blood glucose levels, taste and smell.
brain
What turns hunger on
The hypothalamus also feeds information to the ____, particularly the frontal cortex, which regulates the _____ behaviours involved in finding and ingesting food.
cortex, motor
External Cues in Eating
Food palatability
Food variety
Time of day:
External Cues in Eating
Food palatability
tasty foods can motivate eating.
External Cues in Eating
Food variety
exposure to the same food day after day can reduce intake.
External Cues in Eating
Time of day:
if eating is at same time each day then conditioning can occur.
External Cues in Eating
Presence of others
meal size increases as the group size increases. (social eating)
External Cues in Eating
While it is important to remember that eating serves a _____ function that is triggered via _____, ____ cues also play a role in motivating a person to eat
biological , homeostasis, external
_____ is defined as body weight of __% or more above the ideal for one’s height and age
Obesity. 15.
Consequences of obesity - Physical:
Heart disease, diabetes or stroke, early mortality
Consequences of obesity - Psychological:
Negative stereotypes about the obese, discrimination, difficulty in relationships, low self-esteem
Obesity
In both Australia and NZ, about __% of the adult population are obese, and a further __% in each country overweight.
20, 30
Obesity has been predicted by examining the interaction between a person’s body weight (classified as overweight or not) and the presence of _____ cues for food, These predictions are also bound by _____ notions of obesity, it varies between and within countries and also between social classes.
, external, cultural
The Sexual Response Cycle
Like hunger, _____ is a universal drive based in ____, but its expression varies considerably from culture to culture and from person to person.
sex, biology
The Sexual Response Cycle
_____ motivation is even more variable than hunger. Most people eat two or three meals a day, whereas sexual appetites defy generalisation. Sexual behaviour is driven as much by fantasies as by hormones – it is argued that the primary sexual organ in humans is not the genitals but the brain
Sexual,
The Sexual Response Cycle States
- includes several states, which are:
Excitement
Plateau
Orgasm
Resolution
The Sexual Response Cycle States
– increased muscle tension, engorgement of blood vessels in the genitals causing erection of the penis and lubrication of the vagina and often a skin flush.
Excitement
The Sexual Response Cycle States
– maximum arousal occurs during this second phase – heart rate, respiration, muscle tension and blood pressure reach their peak.
Plateau
The Sexual Response Cycle States
– this stage is characterised by vaginal contractions in females and the ejaculation of semen in males
Orgasm
The Sexual Response Cycle States
– physiological and psychological functioning gradually return to normal
Resolution
Biology and Sexual Motivation - Hormonal effects on the nervous system
Hormones have two effects on the nervous system and behaviour:
Organisational effects
Activational effects
Biology and Sexual Motivation - Hormonal effects on the nervous system
Prenatal exposure to androgens alters the neural circuits in brain and spinal cord
Organisational effects:
Biology and Sexual Motivation - Hormonal effects on the nervous system
Alteration of adult levels of hormones can alter the intensity of a behaviour that is modulated by that hormone
Activational effects
Biology and Sexual Motivation - Hormones
The sexual response cycle is regulated in large part by _____ control
hormonal
Biology and Sexual Motivation - Hormones
The hormones involved (_____ and _____) are responsible not only for setting off the phases in the sexual response cycle, but also for activation of developmental processes such as growth and development of secondary sex characteristics.
testosterone and oestrogen
Culture and Sexual Motivation
Anthropological studies show wide ____ variation in sexual acts and what behaviour is considered appropriate.
cultural
____ _____ is the enduring direction of attraction for a sexual partner.
Sexual orientation
Sexual Orientation
An attraction for a person of the same sex.
homosexuality
Sexual Orientation
_____ responses differ between homosexual and heterosexual men.
Hormonal
_____ needs are less obviously biological, but are strongly influenced by evolved tendencies embedded in biology
Psychosocial
Psychosocial Motives
Psychosocial needs include ____ and ______ motives for achievement, power, self-esteem, affiliation, intimacy etc.
personal and interpersonal,
Psychosocial Motives
Psychosocial needs can be generally categorised into 2 clusters of goals that are pursued
1/ Need of relatedness, or connectedness with others
2/ Need for agency - these are self-oriented goals such as achievement, mastery, power and independence
Psychosocial Motives - Need for relatedness is characterised by: (3)
Attachment Motivation
Intimacy is closeness
Affiliation
Psychosocial Motives - Need for relatedness
______ ______ refers to the desire for physical and psychological proximity to another (comfort and pleasure).
Attachment Motivation
Psychosocial Motives - Need for relatedness
Intimacy is closeness that is characterised by ____-_____, warmth and mutual caring (adult relationships).
self-disclosure
Psychosocial Motives - Need for relatedness
______ is interaction with friends or acquaintances (communication and support).
Affiliation
Psychosocial Motives -Achievement Motivation
Need for _____ refers to the need to do well, to succeed, and to avoid failure
Achievement
Psychosocial Motives - Need for Achievement
Persons who have a high level of need for achievement tend to
Choose moderately difficult tasks Enjoy being challenged Avoid failure Work more persistently Enjoy success
From a _____ perspective, motives can be expressed selectively because they are _____ organised, with some sections of the hierarchy carrying more motivational weights than other
cognitive, hierarchically,
Psychosocial Motives - Achievement Motivation
The need for _____ – to succeed and to avoid failure – affects the goals people pursue in everyday life, the tasks they choose to tackle, and the extent to which they persist in the face of difficulty
achievement
Psychosocial Motives - Achievement Motivation
Motives for power, competence, achievement, autonomy and self-esteem form the _____ cluster of motives common to humans throughout the world.
second
Psychosocial Motives - Achievement Motivation
As early as the _____ year of life, infants have a desire to be competent and effective, even when they are not rewarded by their parents. Just look at the persistence and pride in young children as they learn to walk.
second,
Behaviourist
Drive reduction theory argues that motivation is a function of:
Drive and reinforcement
An _____ is an external stimulus or reward that can have motivational consequences.
incentive
For females, the heritability of homosexuality is estimated to be between:
27 and 76
Which emotions appear to be neither a positive nor a negative affect?
anger
