Psychology as a Science Flashcards
Science is the acquisition of _________ through the __________ study of particular factors and the events which they influence
Knowledge, systematics
Theory
Theory is a systematic way of organising and explaining observations; different schools of thought promoting different theories.
Psychology is
Psychology is the systematic study of the mental processes and behaviours
Good research, regardless of the topic, is grounded in ______.
Theory.
A _________ is a tentative belief about the way two (or more) _________ interact/impact each other.
Hypothesis, variables
A theoretical framework is
A systematic way of organising and explaining observations
And
A hypothesis that flows from a theory or an important question.
What are the 4 characteristics of good psychological research (Research concepts).
A theoretical framework
A standardised procedure
Generalisability
Objective measure
A standardised procedure
Procedure that is the same for all participants except where variation is introduced to test a hypothesis.
Generalisability
Sample that is representative of the population
and
Procedure that is sensible and relevant to circumstance outside the laboratory.
Object Measure
Measure that are reliable (that produce consistent results
and
Measures that are valid (that assess the dimensions they purport to assess).
What is any phenomenon that can take on more than one value
Variable
An ___________ is one which is controlled, manipulated or
recorded so its effect on some other variable can be determined
Independent variable
A ___________ is one whose values are expected to change as a
result of changes in the values of other variables (what is measured in the
experiment)
Dependent variable
Varies continuously
Continuous variable (e.g. body weight, height)
Takes on fixed values
Categorical variable (gender, political affiliation)
Smaller subsets of the population that researchers can use to make make inferences about an entire population
Sample
The entire group of people that a researcher is interested in
population
Are the procedures of the study sound or are they flawed?
Internal validity
External validity
Does the experimental situation resemble the situation found in the real world?
To be valid the sampling must be
Representative
Measure
A concrete means by which to determine the value of a variable
_________ refers to the consistency of the measure
Reliability
To be valid means
To actually measure the variable of interest for the purposes it was designed.
Reliability techniques
Test-retest reliability
Internal consistency
Inter-rater reliability
Does the test give similar values if the same participant takes it two or more times?
Test-retest reliability
Internal consistency
Different items that measure the same variable should produce similar answers – be consistent.
Two testers who rate the same person on the same variable, should give similar ratings to the participant.
Inter-rater reliability
Scientific approach has three main goals
Description
Prediction
Understanding
_______ summarising data produced in a way that makes the events and the relationship between them easily understandable.
Description
Prediction
Using the outcome of research to identify what is likely to occur in the future
Identifying the causal factors that led to the results found
Understanding
Types of research methods
Descriptive Designs
Correlational Designs
Experimental Designs
Concerned with describing behaviour
Descriptive Designs
Correlational Designs
Concerned with predicting behaviour
Experimental Designs
Concerned with establishing the causes of behaviour
The ______________ is the variable manipulated by the experimenter, whereas, the _______________ is the response of the subjects.
Independent variable (IV) Dependent variable (DV)
Experimental research design
1- Framing a hypothesis 2- Operationilising Variables 3- Developing a standardised procedure 4- Selecting and assigning participants 5- Applying statistical techniques to the data 6- Drawing conclusions
Limits of experimental research
- Complex real-world issues are not easily studied in the laboratory (e.g., prejudice)
- In many situations, the IV cannot be manipulated (e.g., cannot require participants to divorce, to study its effects on children).
- Therefore, need to study groups that already exist via quasi-experimental designs.
- Quasi-experimental designs are most common in psychology
Methods of descriptive research:
Case studies
Naturalistic observation
Survey research
The __________ seeks to describe phenomena rather than to manipulate variables
descriptive approach
Case studies
An in-depth study of the behaviour of one person or a small group
Case study drawbacks include
Small sample size
Susceptibility to researcher bias
Problem of an atypical case
Refers to the in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting
Naturalistic observation
Survey technique asks questions of large numbers of persons to gain information on attitudes and behaviour and contains 2 approaches
Questionnaires
Interviews (face-to-face, telephone)
Sampling issues and
People may not respond accurately
Disadvantages of survey approach
Disadvantages of naturalistic observation
Observation per se can alter behaviour
Cannot establish the cause of behaviour
Case study drawbacks include
Small _________
__________ to researcher bias
Problem of an ________ case
Sample size
Susceptibility
Atypical
Correlational research
Aim of the correlational approach is to determine the degree to which two or more variables are related – they can not determine causality
__________ can determine association between data from experiments, case studies, or surveys
Correlations
Calculate the correlation coefficient (r)
Values range from –1 through 0 through +1
High values of one variable are associated with low values of the other variable
Negative correlations
Positive correlations
High values of one variable are associated with high values of the other variable.
Determining whether research findings apply in other cultures is an important and challenging undertaking
Cross cultural research
Naturalistic observation
Replication of experiments with people from different cultures
Back translation of questionnaires
Methods used in Cross cultural research
A Code of Ethics
-Informed consent
-Maintain participant welfare
-Voluntary participation
-Ensure confidentiality
-Avoid deception
F-air and humane treatment of animals
-Gain appropriate ethics approval
Critically evaluating research
- Does the theoretical framework make sense?
- Is the sample adequate and appropriate?
- Are the measures and procedures adequate?
- Are the data conclusive?
- Are the broader conclusions warranted?
- Does the study say anything meaningful?
- Is the study ethical?
Experimental and Descriptive methods
All answer different psychological questions – which is the appropriate method will depend on the question being addressed.
The scientific approach to research has three main goals:
Description, prediction and understanding
The process of operationalisation refers to:
Turning an abstract concept into a concrete idea.
Which neuroimaging technique rotates and x-ray tube around a person’s head, producing a series of x-ray pictures.
Computerised axial tomography (CAT) scan
The CAT in CAT scan stands for
Computerised axial tomography scan
CAT scans
produces a series of x-ray images that a computer combines into a composite visual image that pinpoints the location of abnormalities in the brain, such as neuronal degeneration and abnormal tissue growths (tumours)
MRI stands for
Magnetic resonance imaging
- is related to CAT scans.
This neuroimaging technique produces similar results to CAT scans without using x-ray
MRI
This neuroimaging technique injects a small quantity of radio active glucose into the bloodstream.
PET - Positron emission tomography
PET stands for.
Positron emission tomography
As nerve cells use energy and replenish their supply from the bloodstream cells, the cells that have been radioactively tagged are processed by a computer to produce a colour portrait of the brain, showing which parts are active.
PET - Positron emission tomography
PET observes the brain in ______. Which is changing the perceptions of diseases such as _______ by identifying neural pathways that diverge from individuals without the ______.
Action, schizophrenia, disorder.
This neruroimaging technique uses MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) to watch the brain as an individual carries out tasks such as solving mathematical problems or looking at emotionally evocative pictures.
fMRI - Functional Magnetic resonance imaging
fMRI stands for
Functional Magnetic resonance imaging
This neuroimaging technique exposes the brain to pulses of a phenomenally strong magnet and measuring the response of chemicals in blood cells going to and from various regions, which become lined up in the direction of the magnet
fMRI - Functional Magnetic resonance imaging
Measures electrical avtivity towards the surface of the brain (near the skull).
EEG - Electroencephalogram
The ___ capitalises on the fact that every time a neurone fires it produces electrical activity; this is measured by placing electrodes on the scalp, to measure electrical activity towards the surface of the brain, near the skull.
EEG - Electroencephalogram
The EEG - Electroencephalogram is most often used to:
diagnose disorders such as epilepsy and to study neural activity during sleep. It has also measures whether the two hemisphere of the brain respond differently to stimuli that evoke valences of emotion, which they do.
