Test 1 Flashcards
Fitness
Ability to survive and reproduce (pass on ones genes)
What leads to adaptive evolutionary change?
Natural selection
Selective advantage
Individuals that survive and produce fertile offspring
Natural selection acts on:
Phenotype
Polygenic control
Many plant and animal characteristics are controlled by more than one gene
Three kinds of selection which cause changes in the normal distribution:
- Stabilizing
- Directional
- Disruptive
Stabilizing selection
Selects against phenotypic extremes, favors individuals with average phenotypes (Human birth weights)
Directional Selection
When an environment changes, phenotypes at one extreme of the normal distribution are favored (Allele favored must already be present in the population)
ex. Peppered moths
Disruptive Selection
Extreme changes in the environment may favor two or more different phenotypes
(Very rare, selects against the average phenotype)
Results in a divergence of distinct groups of individuals within a population
Geographic variation
Genetic differences among different populations within the same species, such as a cline
Cline
Gradual change in a species phenotype and genotype through a series of geographically separate populations as a result of an environmental gradient
(Common among species with continuous ranges over large geographic areas)
Population genetics
The study of genetic variability within a population and of the evolutionary forces that act on it
Allele
Alternative forms of a gene located at a specific location on a specific chromosome
How is it possible to estimate the amount of observed variation that is genetic?
By the number, frequency, and kinds of alleles in a population
Population gene pool includes
All the alleles for all the loci present
Diploid
Two alleles at each genetic locus
How is evolution of populations described?
Genotype, phenotype, and allele frequency
Genotype
Genetic makeup, or combination of alleles, in an individual
Allele frequency
Fraction of all chromosomes in the population that carry that allele
The sum of all genotype frequencies equals
one
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population do not change from generation to generation unless influenced by outside factors
Genetic equilibrium
A population with no net change in allele or genotype frequencies over time
Evolution is occurring if ____ are changing of time
Allele frequencies
p^2
Frequency of AA
Q^2
Frequency of aa
2pq
frequency of Aa
Genetic equilibrium exists only when five conditions are me
- Random Mating
- No net mutations
- Large population size
- no migration
- no natural selection
Microevolution
Refers to relatively small generation to generation changes in allele or genotype frequencies within a population
Five microevolutionary processes
- nonrandom mating
- mutaiton
- genetic drift
- gene flow
- natural selection
Inbreeding increases:
Frequency of homozygous genotypes
Inbreeding depression
Inbred individuals have lower fitness than those not inbred
Assortative mating
Individuals select mates by their phenotypes
Positive assortative mating
Selection of mates with the same phenotype
Negative assortative mating
Selection of mates with different phenotype
Genetic drift
Random evolutionary changes in small breeding populations results in changes in allele frequencies in a population
Genetic drift decreases
Genetic variation within a population but increases genetic differences among different populations
Bottlenecks
Occasionally a population may rapidly and severely decrease due to disease, exploitation, or sudden environmental change
Genetic drift can occur in a small population of survivors causing many allele frequencies to differ from those proceeding the decline
Founder effect
Genetic drift tat results when a few individuals from a large population found a new colony
Gene flow counteracts
The effects of natural selection and genetic drift
Taxonomy
The science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms
Who founded modern taxonomy?
Carl Linnaeus
Morphological species concept
The classification of plants and other organisms into separate species based on their visible structural differences such as feathers or number of flower parts
Binomial nomenclature
Gives each species a name made up of two words ( in latin):
Genus species
Genus
First epithet (capitalized)
Species
Second epithet (lowercase)
The Biological species concept
A species consists of one or more populations whose members interbreed in nature to produce fertile offspring and do not breed with members of other species
When do new species evolve?
When populations become reproductively isolated from one another
Who first expressed the biological species concept?
Ernst Mayr
Shortcomings of BSC
- Applies only to sexually reproducing organisms
- Does not apply to bacteria, or extinct organisms
- Individuals assigned to different species sometimes do successfully interbreed
The phylogenetic species concept
A population is declared a separate species if it has undergone evolution long enough for statistically significant differences in diagnostic traits emerge
(Testable by comparing gene sequences between two groups)
Shortcomings of PSC
- Requires thorough studies of DNA sequencing
2. Many subspecies would become separate species
Prezygotic Barriers
Reproductive isolating mechanisms that prevent mating or fertilization from taking place
Types of prezygotic barriers
Temporal isolation habitat isolation behavioral isolation mechanical isolation gametic isolation
Temporal isolation
Two groups reproduce at different times of the day, season, or year
Habitat Isolation
Two closely related species in the same geographic area live and breed in different habitats in that area
Behavioral Isolation
Sexual Isolation
Species-specific courtship behaviors
Mechanical Isolation
Structural differences in reproductive organs prevent successful mating between species
Gametic Isolation
If mating takes place, molecular and chemical differences between species prevents fertilization
Postzygotic Barriers
Fertilization occurs between gametes of two closely related species despite their prezygotic barriers
Generally, the embryo of an interspecific hybrid spontaneously aborts
Speciation begins when?
When a population becomes reproductively isolated from other populations and their gene pools diverge
Allopatric Speciation
Speciation that occurs when one population becomes geographically isolated from others of the species and evolves by natural selection and/or genetic drift
Sympatric
Speciation between two populations in the same geographic range
When does sympatric speciation occur?
When reproductive isolating mechanisms evolve at the start of the speciation process
How does sympatric speciation occur?
In two ways:
A change in ecology or in ploidy
Polyploidy
Having more than two sets of chromosomes
Autopolyploid
The chromosome complement consists of more than 2 copies of homologous chromosomes (from the same species)
Allopolyploid
The chromosome complement consists of more than 2 copies of chromosomes derived from different species
When does allopolyploidy occur?
When two species mate to produce a hybrid species
How does autopolyploidy arise?
By the fusion of gametes of the same species
How does allopolyploidy arise?
By the fusion of gametes of the different species
What does autopolyploidy consist of?
Homologous chromosome sets
What does allopolyploidy consist of?
All chromosome sets are not homologous
What causes autopolyploidy?
Mainly caused by nondisjunction of chromosomes
What causes allopolyploidy?
Mating of different species
Allopolyploidy gametes have a _____ # of chromosomes from either parent
Different number of chromosomes