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Biology 212 > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Fitness

A

Ability to survive and reproduce (pass on ones genes)

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2
Q

What leads to adaptive evolutionary change?

A

Natural selection

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3
Q

Selective advantage

A

Individuals that survive and produce fertile offspring

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4
Q

Natural selection acts on:

A

Phenotype

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5
Q

Polygenic control

A

Many plant and animal characteristics are controlled by more than one gene

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6
Q

Three kinds of selection which cause changes in the normal distribution:

A
  1. Stabilizing
  2. Directional
  3. Disruptive
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7
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

Selects against phenotypic extremes, favors individuals with average phenotypes (Human birth weights)

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8
Q

Directional Selection

A

When an environment changes, phenotypes at one extreme of the normal distribution are favored (Allele favored must already be present in the population)

ex. Peppered moths

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9
Q

Disruptive Selection

A

Extreme changes in the environment may favor two or more different phenotypes

(Very rare, selects against the average phenotype)

Results in a divergence of distinct groups of individuals within a population

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10
Q

Geographic variation

A

Genetic differences among different populations within the same species, such as a cline

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11
Q

Cline

A

Gradual change in a species phenotype and genotype through a series of geographically separate populations as a result of an environmental gradient

(Common among species with continuous ranges over large geographic areas)

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12
Q

Population genetics

A

The study of genetic variability within a population and of the evolutionary forces that act on it

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13
Q

Allele

A

Alternative forms of a gene located at a specific location on a specific chromosome

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14
Q

How is it possible to estimate the amount of observed variation that is genetic?

A

By the number, frequency, and kinds of alleles in a population

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15
Q

Population gene pool includes

A

All the alleles for all the loci present

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16
Q

Diploid

A

Two alleles at each genetic locus

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17
Q

How is evolution of populations described?

A

Genotype, phenotype, and allele frequency

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18
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic makeup, or combination of alleles, in an individual

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19
Q

Allele frequency

A

Fraction of all chromosomes in the population that carry that allele

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20
Q

The sum of all genotype frequencies equals

A

one

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21
Q

The Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A

Frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population do not change from generation to generation unless influenced by outside factors

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22
Q

Genetic equilibrium

A

A population with no net change in allele or genotype frequencies over time

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23
Q

Evolution is occurring if ____ are changing of time

A

Allele frequencies

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24
Q

p^2

A

Frequency of AA

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25
Q

Q^2

A

Frequency of aa

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26
Q

2pq

A

frequency of Aa

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27
Q

Genetic equilibrium exists only when five conditions are me

A
  1. Random Mating
  2. No net mutations
  3. Large population size
  4. no migration
  5. no natural selection
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28
Q

Microevolution

A

Refers to relatively small generation to generation changes in allele or genotype frequencies within a population

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29
Q

Five microevolutionary processes

A
  1. nonrandom mating
  2. mutaiton
  3. genetic drift
  4. gene flow
  5. natural selection
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30
Q

Inbreeding increases:

A

Frequency of homozygous genotypes

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31
Q

Inbreeding depression

A

Inbred individuals have lower fitness than those not inbred

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32
Q

Assortative mating

A

Individuals select mates by their phenotypes

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33
Q

Positive assortative mating

A

Selection of mates with the same phenotype

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34
Q

Negative assortative mating

A

Selection of mates with different phenotype

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35
Q

Genetic drift

A

Random evolutionary changes in small breeding populations results in changes in allele frequencies in a population

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36
Q

Genetic drift decreases

A

Genetic variation within a population but increases genetic differences among different populations

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37
Q

Bottlenecks

A

Occasionally a population may rapidly and severely decrease due to disease, exploitation, or sudden environmental change

Genetic drift can occur in a small population of survivors causing many allele frequencies to differ from those proceeding the decline

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38
Q

Founder effect

A

Genetic drift tat results when a few individuals from a large population found a new colony

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39
Q

Gene flow counteracts

A

The effects of natural selection and genetic drift

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40
Q

Taxonomy

A

The science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms

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41
Q

Who founded modern taxonomy?

A

Carl Linnaeus

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42
Q

Morphological species concept

A

The classification of plants and other organisms into separate species based on their visible structural differences such as feathers or number of flower parts

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43
Q

Binomial nomenclature

A

Gives each species a name made up of two words ( in latin):

Genus species

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44
Q

Genus

A

First epithet (capitalized)

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45
Q

Species

A

Second epithet (lowercase)

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46
Q

The Biological species concept

A

A species consists of one or more populations whose members interbreed in nature to produce fertile offspring and do not breed with members of other species

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47
Q

When do new species evolve?

A

When populations become reproductively isolated from one another

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48
Q

Who first expressed the biological species concept?

A

Ernst Mayr

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49
Q

Shortcomings of BSC

A
  1. Applies only to sexually reproducing organisms
  2. Does not apply to bacteria, or extinct organisms
  3. Individuals assigned to different species sometimes do successfully interbreed
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50
Q

The phylogenetic species concept

A

A population is declared a separate species if it has undergone evolution long enough for statistically significant differences in diagnostic traits emerge

(Testable by comparing gene sequences between two groups)

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51
Q

Shortcomings of PSC

A
  1. Requires thorough studies of DNA sequencing

2. Many subspecies would become separate species

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52
Q

Prezygotic Barriers

A

Reproductive isolating mechanisms that prevent mating or fertilization from taking place

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53
Q

Types of prezygotic barriers

A 
Temporal isolation
habitat isolation
behavioral isolation
mechanical isolation
gametic isolation
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54
Q

Temporal isolation

A

Two groups reproduce at different times of the day, season, or year

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55
Q

Habitat Isolation

A

Two closely related species in the same geographic area live and breed in different habitats in that area

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56
Q

Behavioral Isolation

A

Sexual Isolation

Species-specific courtship behaviors

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57
Q

Mechanical Isolation

A

Structural differences in reproductive organs prevent successful mating between species

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58
Q

Gametic Isolation

A

If mating takes place, molecular and chemical differences between species prevents fertilization

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59
Q

Postzygotic Barriers

A

Fertilization occurs between gametes of two closely related species despite their prezygotic barriers

Generally, the embryo of an interspecific hybrid spontaneously aborts

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60
Q

Speciation begins when?

A

When a population becomes reproductively isolated from other populations and their gene pools diverge

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61
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

Speciation that occurs when one population becomes geographically isolated from others of the species and evolves by natural selection and/or genetic drift

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62
Q

Sympatric

A

Speciation between two populations in the same geographic range

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63
Q

When does sympatric speciation occur?

A

When reproductive isolating mechanisms evolve at the start of the speciation process

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64
Q

How does sympatric speciation occur?

A

In two ways:

A change in ecology or in ploidy

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65
Q

Polyploidy

A

Having more than two sets of chromosomes

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66
Q

Autopolyploid

A

The chromosome complement consists of more than 2 copies of homologous chromosomes (from the same species)

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67
Q

Allopolyploid

A

The chromosome complement consists of more than 2 copies of chromosomes derived from different species

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68
Q

When does allopolyploidy occur?

A

When two species mate to produce a hybrid species

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69
Q

How does autopolyploidy arise?

A

By the fusion of gametes of the same species

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70
Q

How does allopolyploidy arise?

A

By the fusion of gametes of the different species

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71
Q

What does autopolyploidy consist of?

A

Homologous chromosome sets

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72
Q

What does allopolyploidy consist of?

A

All chromosome sets are not homologous

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73
Q

What causes autopolyploidy?

A

Mainly caused by nondisjunction of chromosomes

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74
Q

What causes allopolyploidy?

A

Mating of different species

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75
Q

Allopolyploidy gametes have a _____ # of chromosomes from either parent

A

Different number of chromosomes

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76
Q

Outcomes of allopolyploids

A
  1. New species outcompeted by established species (bcomes extinct)
  2. New species may coexist with both parental species
  3. New species may outcompete and replace parental species
77
Q

Hybrid Zone

A

An area of overlap between two recently diverged populations in which interbreeding takes place and hybrid offspring are common

78
Q

Three possibilities within hybrid zones:

A
  1. Reinforcement (Hybrids are less fit than parental species)
  2. Fusion (Just as fit)
  3. Stability (More fit)
79
Q

Two models of evolution based on observed fossil record

A
  1. Punctuated equilibrium

2. Phyletic gradualism

80
Q

Punctuated equilibrium

A

Long periods of stasis are interrupted by short periods of rapid speciation (perhaps triggered by changes in the environment)

81
Q

Phyletic Gradualism

A

Evolution proceeds continuously over long periods

82
Q

Macroevolution

A

Large-scale phenotypic changes in populations at the species level and higher such as new species, genera, families, orders, classes, phyla, kingdoms, and domains

83
Q

Adaptive Radiation

A

The evolutionary diversification of many related species from one or few ancestral species in a relatively short period

May occur when species are able to exploit numerous new ecological opportunities

84
Q

Adaptive Zones

A

New or vacant ecological niches that were not exploited by an ancestral organism

(Vacant adaptive zones are more common on islands than continents)

85
Q

Four requirements for chemical evolution

A
  1. Little or no free oxygen
  2. A source of energy
  3. Availability of chemical building blocks
  4. Time
86
Q

Two hypothesis explaining the formation of organic molecules

A
  1. Prebiotic soup hypothesis

2. Iron-sulfur world hypothesis

87
Q

Prebiotic soup hypothesis

A

Proposes that organic precursors formed near earths surface

88
Q

Iron-sulfur world hypothesis

A

Proposes that organic precursors formed at cracks in the oceans floor

89
Q

Microspheres

A

A type of protobiont formed by adding water to abiotically formed polypeptides

90
Q

Stromatolites

A

Composed of many minute layers of microbial biofilms

Another type of fossil evidence of early cells

91
Q

Cyanobacteria were first to obtain…

A

Hydrogen electrons by splitting water

92
Q

Serial endosymbiosis

A

Suggests that early eukaryotic cells were assemblages of formerly free-living prokaryotes

93
Q

Endosymbionts may have been ___ not ___

A

Ingested not digested

94
Q

Earths history is divided into

A

eons, eras, and epochs based on major geologic, climate and biological events

95
Q

Life originated during the

A

Archaean eon (4.6-2.6 bya)

96
Q

Paleozoic Era

A

542-251 mya

Cambrian
Ordovician
silurian
devonian
carboniferous
permian
97
Q

The Cambrian Period

A

During cambrian radiation evolution was rapid, with the sudden appearance of many new animal body plants

98
Q

The Devonian Period

A

Explosive radiation of fishes with jaws (The Age of Fishes)

Amphibians, wingless insects, and all major plant groups but flowering plants also originated during this time

99
Q

Carboniferous Period

A

Amphibians underwent an adaptive radiation and became the dominant carnivores in terrestrial ecosystems

Reptiles, cockroaches and dragonflies appear

100
Q

Permian extinction (Mass Extinction)

A

Between the permian and triassic periods (251 mya)

more than 90% of marine species and 70% of vertebrate genera living on land became extinct

101
Q

Dinosaurs went extinct

A

At the end of the cretaceous period (66 mya)

102
Q

When did Human ancestors appear?

A

In Africa during the late Miocene and early Pliocene epochs

103
Q

When did Genus Homo appear?

A

Approximately 2.5 mya

A mass extinction of large mammals at the end of the Pleistocene coincided with the appearance of human hunters

104
Q

Paleoanthropology

A

The study of human evolution

Paleo=ancient; Anthropos=human

105
Q

The first primates descended from what?

A

Small, shrewlike placental mammals that lived in trees and ate insects

106
Q

When did the first primates appear?

A

By the early Eocene

107
Q

Large brain is associated with

A

Increased sensory input, intelligence, and socialization

108
Q

Arboreal adaptation

A

Long, Slender limbs that rotate freely at the hips and shoulders, stereoscopic vision

109
Q

Hominoids

A

A group composed of apes and hominins

110
Q

Five genera of hominoids in existence today

A 
Gibbons
Orangutans
gorillas
chimpanzees
humans
111
Q

Homo erectus probably evolved from

A

Homo ergaster

112
Q

The church insists on

A

the special creation of mans soul

113
Q

The Catholic faith obliges us to hold that

A

Sould are immediately created by God

114
Q

The church allows for the possibility that man’s body

A

Developed from previous biological forms

115
Q

Biodiversity

A

The variety of living organisms and the ecosystems in which they belong

116
Q

Systematics

A

The scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships

117
Q

Classification

A

Arranging organisms into groups based on similarities that reflect evolutionary relationships among lineages

118
Q

Taxon

A

A formal grouping of organisms at any given level

119
Q

Taxonomic Levels

A 
Species
Genus
Family
Order
Class
Phylum
Kingdom
Domain
120
Q

The Three Domains

A

Archaea
Bacteria
Eukarya

121
Q

Cladogram

A

A type of phylogenetic tree in which each branch represents a clade

122
Q

Clade

A

A group of organisms with a common ancestor

123
Q

Node

A

Branching points

Represents the divergence of two or more new groups from a common ancestor

124
Q

Root

A

Represents the most recent common ancestor of all the clades depicted in the tree

125
Q

Phylogeny

A

The evolutionary history of a group of organisms from a common ancestor

126
Q

Homology

A

The existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures or genes in different taxa

127
Q

Reversal

A

A trait reverts to its ancestral state

128
Q

Homoplasy

A

The development of similar looking structures by the result of adapting to similar environments through convergent evolution

129
Q

Shared Ancestral Characters

A

Features that were present in an ancestral species and remain present in all groups descended from that ancestor

130
Q

Shared Derived Characters

A

Novel traits that evolve when two populations separate and begin to evolve independently

Characters that originate in a recent common ancestor and are present in its descendants

131
Q

Molecular Systematics

A

Focuses on molecular structure to clarify evolutionary relationships

132
Q

Macromolecules that are functionally similar in two different types of organisms are considered homologous if…

A

Their subunit sequence is similar

133
Q

___ Have been extensively used to determine evolutionary relationships among bacteria

A

rRNA

134
Q

rRNA analysis has suggested ___ are more closely related to ___ than to ___

A

Fungi are more closely related to animals that to plants

135
Q

Cladograms show three types of taxonomic relationships

A
  1. Monophyletic groups
  2. Paraphyletic groups
  3. Polyphyletic groups
136
Q

Monophyletic group

A

Includes an ancestral species and all its descendants

Defined by shared derived characters

Sister taxa share the most recent common ancestor on a cladogram

137
Q

Paraphyletic Group

A

Contains a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants

Shares ancestral characters

138
Q

Polyphyletic Group

A

Consists of several evolutionary lines that do not share the same recent common ancestor

Unnatural grouping that misrepresent evolutionary relationships

139
Q

Out-group Analysis

A

Used to estimate which attributes are shared derived characters in a given group of organisms

140
Q

Outgroup

A

A taxon considered to have branched off earlier than the taxa under investigation, the ingroups

141
Q

An ideal out-group is the in-groups

A

Sister taxon

142
Q

Valid monophyletic group

A

All members share at least one derived character

143
Q

Each branch reflects the addition of…

A

One or more shared derived characters

144
Q

Principle of Parsimony

A

Use the simplest explanation to interpret the data when choosing between multiple, competing cladograms

145
Q

Prokaryotic domains

A

Archaea and Bacteria

146
Q

Cocci (coccus)

A

Spherical

147
Q

Cocci description

A

Occur singly, in groups of twos, in long chains, or clumps

148
Q

Bacilli (Bacillus)

A

Rod-shaped

149
Q

Bacilli description

A

Occur as single rods or long chains of rods

150
Q

Spirochete or spirillum

A

Spirals

Flexible or rigid

151
Q

Spirochete description

A

A comma-shaped spirillum is a vibrio

152
Q

Cell wall

A

Around the plasma membrane supports bacterium and keeps the cell from bursting under hypotonic conditions

153
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

A complex polymer consisting of two amino sugars linked with short polypeptides, to form a single macromolecule that surrounds the entire plasma membrane

154
Q

Peptidoglycan is absent in the ___ cell wall

A

Peptidoglycan is absent in the archaean cell wall

155
Q

Structurally the wall is necessary for:

A
  1. Maintaining shape
  2. Countering the effects of osmotic pressure
  3. Providing attachment sites for bacteriophages
  4. Providing a rigid platform for surface appendages
156
Q

Gram-Positive

A

Absorb and retain crystal violet stain

Has a thick peptidoglycan layer

157
Q

Gram-negative

A

Do not retain the stain

Have an outer membrane and a thin peptidoglycan layer

Lipid portion contains LPS

158
Q

Bacteria also use ___ to attach to surfaces such as rocks, plant roots, or human teeth (dental plaque)

A

Capsules

159
Q

Bacteria use ___ and ___ to attach to cell surfaces or to each other

A

Fimbriae and pili

160
Q

Fimbriae

A

Are hundreds of hairlike appendages made of protein

161
Q

Pili

A

Appendages that are longer (and fewer) than fimbriae

162
Q

Sex Pili

A

Help transmit DNA between bacteria

163
Q

Endospores

A

Dormant, extremely durable cells

164
Q

____ Do not form endospores

A

Archaea

165
Q

Three parts of a bacterial flagellum

A
  1. basal body
  2. a hook
  3. a single filament
166
Q

Binary fission

A

One cell divides into two similar cells in which circular DNA replicates, then an ingrowth of plasma membrane and the cell wall forms a transverse wall

167
Q

Budding

A

A cell develops a bulge (bud) that enlarges, matures, and eventually separates from the mother cell

168
Q

Fragmentation

A

Walls develop within the cell, which then separates into several new cells

169
Q

Vertical gene transfer

A

Transfers genetic material from parent to offspring

170
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

Transfers genetic material to another organism that is not its offspring

171
Q

Three different mechanisms for gene transfer

A
  1. Tranformation
  2. Transduction
  3. Conjugation
172
Q

___ and ___ are important sources of genetic variation for diversification and adaptation

A

Horizontal gene transfers and genetic recombination

173
Q

Autotrophs

A

Use inorganic compounds to manufacture organic molecules

174
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Obtain carbon atoms from organic compounds made by other organisms

175
Q

Chemotrophs

A

Obtain energy from chemical compounds

176
Q

Phototrophs

A

Captures energy from light

177
Q

Nitrification

A

Conversion of ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate (a form that can be used by plants and fungi)

178
Q

Archaea have no ___ in cell walls or ____

A

Peptidoglycan in cell walls or simple RNA polymerase

179
Q

Ester Linkages

A

Occur in PM of eukaryotes and bacteria

180
Q

Ether linkage

A

Occur in PM archaea

181
Q

Archaea inhabit ___ Environments

A

Harsh Environments

182
Q

Two major phyla of Domain Archaea

A

Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota

183
Q

Crenarchaeota

A

Consist mainly of extreme thermophiles, which require very high or very low temperature for growth

184
Q

Euryachaeota

A

Methanogens, extreme halophiles and extreme thermophiles

185
Q

Methanogens

A

inhabit oxygen-free environments

186
Q

Mutualism

A

Both partners benefit

187
Q

Commensalism

A

One partner benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped

188
Q

Parasitism

A

One partner lives on or in the other

the parasite benefits and the host is harmed

189
Q

Biofilms

A

Communities of micro-organisms consisting of many species of bacteria, and may include other organisms such as archaea, fungi, and protozoa

Biology 212 (14 decks)

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