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study guide question Flashcards

1
Q

Define the term physiology

A

the study of function

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2
Q

explain the knowledge and intellectual characteristics of a good physiologist.

A

Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular) basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) Basic chemical principles.

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3
Q

function always reflects ______

A

structure.

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4
Q

List the various levels of structural organization within the body, and give examples for various organ systems.

A

Chemical: atoms and molecules.
Cellular: cells and their organelles.
Tissue: groups of similar cells.
Organ: contains 2 or more types of tissues.
Organ system: organs that work closely together. Organismal: all organ systems.

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5
Q

List the 11 organ systems.

A

Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory , immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.

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6
Q

Which two systems comprise the circulatory system?

A

cardiovascular, lymphatic

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7
Q

. Organ systems work cooperatively to perform _________

A

necessary life functions.

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8
Q

Name the fluid that surrounds the body cells and separates them from the blood plasma

A

Interstitial fluid

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9
Q

Define homeostasis.

A

the ability of the body to maintain a fairly constant internal environment, regardless of outside environmental changes

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10
Q

List and discuss the various survival needs of the body that are controlled by homeostasis

A

Nutrients: chemicals for energy and cell building (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids, minerals, vitamins)

oxygen: essential for energy release (ATP production)
water: most abundant chemical in the body, site of chemical reactions.

Normal body temperature: affects rate of chemical reactions.

Appropriate atmospheric pressure: for adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs.

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11
Q

Describe the general idea and two classes of homeostatic control mechanisms.

A

Intrinsic controls: local controls that are inherent in an organ.

Extrinsic controls: regulatory mechanisms initiated outside an organ, accomplished by nervous and endocrine systems.

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12
Q

Explain a positive feedback system within the body. Be able to give examples.

A

rarer feedback type,

causes variable to change in the same direction as the initial change

(exaggerates original stimulus)

typically activates self-perpetuating events,

most are NOT related to the maintenance of homeostasis

(labor contractions, blood clotting, breastfeeding)

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13
Q

Explain what can happen if homeostasis is disrupted.

A

Disruptions in homeostasis: can lead to illness and death. Pathophysiology: abnormal functioning of the body associated with disease

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14
Q

Define the term cytology

A

study of cells

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15
Q

Explain the various aspects of the cell theory.

A

The cell is the basic unit of life.

Body activity depends on activity of cells.

Cell activity is dictated by internal cell structure.

Reproduction ultimately depends on cells

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16
Q

Name some unique cell types within the body

A

(nerve cells, red blood cells, stem cells)

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17
Q

Name and describe the three basic parts of any cell.

A

Plasma membrane—flexible outer boundary.

Cytoplasm—intracellular fluid containing organelles (mini-organs) in a gel-like fluid called cytosol.

Nucleus—control center containing DNA (codes for protein production and cell reproduction) **not an organelle!

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18
Q

Determine the importance of the cell membrane, and list the fluids that are separated by the cell membrane.

A

Plasma membranes are semipermeable; they are selective about what they allow to pass into and out of the cell.

Separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid specifically interstitial fluid.

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19
Q

what are membrane junctions

A

Membrane Junctions: hold cells together to form tissues.

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20
Q

explain the various ways that cells are held together. Give details regarding desmosomes, tight junctions and gap junctions.

A

Extracellular matrix: proteins that act as “glue” (e.g., collagen and elastin)

Adhesion protein molecules: in cell membranes.

specialized cell junctions:
desmosome: act like “rivets” or “spot-welds” that anchor two closely adjacent but non-touching cells, most abundant in tissues that are subject to considerable stretching (e.g., skin, uterus)

tight junction: firmly bond cells together, prevent fluids and most molecules from moving between cells, prevent undesirable leaks between layers of cells, mostly in epithelial tissue (digestive tract, blood brain barrier)

Gap junction: small connecting tunnels called connexons, made of special protein subunits, allow easy passage of small water soluble molecules between cells, especially abundant in cardiac and smooth muscles.

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21
Q

List and describe organelles that produce substances for cells.

A

Ribosomes: produce proteins.

Endoplasmic reticulum: Produce enzymes, hormones, chemical messengers.

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22
Q

List and describe organelles that process cell products.

A

Golgi complex package cell products in small membrane packages called vesicles

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23
Q

what are lysosomes

A

Lysosomes: are filled with acidic enzymes (acid hydrolases) to digest unwanted particles.

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24
Q

what are peroxisomes

A

Peroxisomes use oxidase and catalase enzymes to detoxify dangerous chemicals and neutralize free radicals.

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25
Describe mitochondria and how they produce energy for the cell.
produce ATP energy through the process of aerobic cellular respiration
26
Describe vacuoles, and give an example of a tissue that heavily relies on its vacuoles.
vacuoles store nutrients and other substances (Fat storage- adipose tissue)
27
Explain the structure and function of the cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton supports cell structure and shape with protein fibers (mostly microfilaments
28
Name the cell structure that anchors cilia and flagella to the cell, and describe another function for that structure during periods of cell division.
centrioles: cylindrical organelles in the bases of cilia and flagella to anchor them; they also organize chromosomes during cell division
29
describe cilia
Cilia move substances (e.g., mucus) across cell surfaces
30
describe flagella
flagella are longer and propel whole cells (e.g., sperm tails)
31
describe microvilli
microvilli are fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane that increase surface area for absorption
32
Describe the structure and function of the nucleus
Nucleus: contains chromosomes and controls structure and function of cell, surrounded by a double-membrane barrier containing pores.
33
What is the function of the nucleolus?
Nucleolus: dark-staining body in the nucleus that produces ribosomal (protein-producing) subunits.
34
describe the structure of a nucleus of an atom
The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons.
35
what are the particles moving rapidly around nucleus
electrons
36
what charge does an atom have
no charge
37
Explain how an atom’s overall charge changes when it has more protons than electrons, or more electrons than protons.
If an atom has more protons it will have a positive charge and it if has more electrons then it will have a negative charge
38
Define ion
Ion- is an atom with an electrical charge (charged particle)
39
define electrolyte
electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into ions when it is in solution.
40
what is an ionic bond
ionic bond- atoms of opposite charges are attracted to one another.
41
what is a covalent bond
two atoms share a pair of electrons
42
what is a hydrogen bond
the bond involves the attraction of a hydrogen end of a molecule with another molecule.
43
Chemical bonds can be formed or broken. Which of these actions involves the storage of energy versus the release of energy?
When chemical bonds are formed energy is stored. When chemical bonds are broken energy is released.
44
Name the one and only energy molecule within the human body, which allows us to do all of our work.
ATP adenosine triphosphate
45
Describe polar covalent bonds
Unequal sharing of electrons between different types of atoms that are covalently bonded together (e.g., water).
46
List and describe properties of water that contribute to its essential role in human life.
Polarity: allows water molecules to interact with one another and with other polar (hydrophilic) molecules. Surface Tension water molecules stick to one another (hydrogen bonds) High Boiling Point- lots of heat is needed to break H bonds and keep them from reforming. Evaporative Coolant- when water evaporates, it absorbs energy. Thermal Conductivity- water efficiently moves heat. Water acts as a solvent- lots of compounds can be dissolved in it
47
Differentiate between the terms hydrophilic and hydrophobic
Hydrophilic- water loving, polar, heads. Hydrophobic- water fearing, nonpolar, tails.
48
Explain the difference between solvents and solutes
Solvent- dissolves. | Solute- substance trying to dissolve.
49
What causes a solution to become more concentrated?
A solution becomes more concentrated when there is more solute
50
what is a hypertonic solution & how does it effect a cell
Hypertonic: more concentrated.In cells will shrink (crenation).
51
what is a hypotonic solution and how does it effect a cell
Hypotonic: less concentrated. . In cells will swell, possibly until they burst (hemolysis)
52
what is an isotonic solution and how does it effect the cell
Isotonic: solute concentrations are the same in both solutions. Cells will neither shrink nor swell.
53
Define diffusion
the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lesser concentration until equilibrium is reached
54
What is the term for the diffusion of water?
Osmosis: the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
55
range of the pH scale
``` 1-2 strong acid 3-5 moderately strong aid 6 weak acid 7 neutral 8-9 weak base 10-12 moderately strong base, 13-14 strong base ```
56
how much more acid or base does a substance have each number on the pH scale
A substance has 10x more acid/base each number on the pH scale.
57
Which ions are given off by acids in solution,
When acids are in a solution, they release hydrogen ions (H+) into the solution.
58
what makes an acid a strong acid?
The more H+ released, the stronger the acid.
59
Which ions are given off by bases
When bases are in a solution, they release hydroxide ions (OH-) into the solution
60
in solution, and what makes a base a strong base?
Binding to hydrogen ions. (A strong base can bind more readily than a weak one).
61
Define the normal range for blood pH
Average Blood pH = 7.4
62
acidosis
blood pH falls below 7.35
63
alkalosis
blood pH is above 7.45
64
the extreme pH levels of blood that can cause death.
Death occurs if blood pH goes outside the range of 6.8-8.0 for more than a few seconds
65
What is the role of pH buffers within the body
chemicals which help to minimize pH changes when an acid or base is added to the body fluid (especially blood) contain several buffers which help you to resist pH changes.
66
Define the term macromolecule.
a very large molecule commonly created by polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers). They are typically composed of thousands or more atom.
67
polymers v.s monomer
large molecules that are long chains of smaller molecules monomers.
68
give examples of each for the four types of | organic molecules within the body
Carbohydrate- Sugars (monosaccharides) Lipid- Fatty acids & monoglycerides. Protein-amino acids Nucleic Acids- nucleotides.
69
Discuss the functions of carbohydrates within cells,
energy storage, source of energy for all cellular functions, structural component for cells
70
examples of various types of carbohydrates
. Monomer of Carbohydrate (monosaccharides): glucose = cellular fuel Complex Carbohydrates: long chains of simple sugars such as starch (plant energy storage) cellulose (plant structure) glycogen (animal energy storage)
71
Discuss the functions of lipids within cells
energy storage, major component of the cell membrane, hormone production.
72
List different types of lipids within the body,
Triglycerides- fats and oils. Phospholipids- found in cell membranes. Steroids: cholesterol - component of cell membranes (sex hormones)
73
saturated fatty acids
saturated = every C is filled with H, solid at room temperature.
74
unsaurated fatty acids
Unsaturated: some C form double bonds, liquid at room temperature.
75
Describe the various functions of proteins within the body..
``` structural (cell parts, hair, muscle) regulatory (hormones) transport (hemoglobin in red blood cells) antibodies (disease prevention) enzymes (speed up chemical reactions ```
76
Explain the importance of amino acids.
change the amino acids (or even their order), and you have a completely different protein!
77
Generally discuss how proteins involve several levels of structure
Primary structure – a simple chain of amino acids secondary structures: structural patterns from hydrogen bonds (alpha helix, beta sheet) tertiary structure: final three-dimensional shape of the polypeptide chain (globular, fibrous) quaternary structure: present in proteins with two or more polypeptide chains.
78
How can extreme environmental conditions affect protein structure and function?
extreme heat, or very high or low pH, can cause a protein to become denatured a change in 3-dimensional structure
79
Identify the full names for the five nucleotides, and note the one nucleotide that is present within the ATP molecule
adenine(present in ATP), cytosine, thymine, guanine, uracil
80
Discuss the functions of nucleic acids and nucleotides within cells
genetic info DNA (genes in chromosomes) RNA (for protein synthesis) energy transport ATP
81
Define cellular respiration
the process of breaking down glucose in many steps
82
List the reactants and products of cellular respiration.
Recants: oxygen and glucose Products: carbon dioxide & ATP
83
Discuss the details of glycolysis..
glucose is broken down into 3-carbon pieces (each piece is called pyruvate) produces 2 ATP molecules
84
where is glycolysis located
in the cytoplasm
85
does glycolysis require oxygen
no
86
Discuss the details of Kreb’s cycle (citric acid cycle).
pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA, 3-carbon pieces are broken down hydrogens are broken off and picked up by hydrogen carriers: NAD+ → NADH and FAD →FADH2 two more ATP molecules are produced, CO2 is a waste product
87
location of citric acid cycle
mitochondria
88
does citric acid require oxygen
yes
89
Discuss the details of oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport system)
hydrogen carriers NADH and FADH2 (from Citric Acid Cycle) enter the electron transport system within mitochondrial membranes electrons from hydrogen are passed along a system of enzymes within the mitochondria producing 30-34 more molecules of ATP!!!! H2O is a waste product
90
location of electron transport system
mitochondria
91
does the electron transport system require oxygen
yes
92
Recognize that the number of ATP produced during cellular respiration may vary
34-38
93
Explain the selective permeability of the cell membrane
regulates what passes into and out of the cell
94
What specific type of lipid makes up the bilayer of the cell membrane?
phospholipid
95
Explain the differences between the heads and the tails of phospholipids
Heads- hydrophillic, polar, phosphate group Tails- hydrophobic, nonpolar, fatty acid groups
96
What roles do cholesterols play in the cell membrane?
provides stability and also lubricates the fatty acid tails
97
exocytosis
vesicles can fuse with the membrane | removes items from cell
98
endocytosis
bits of membrane pinch off and become vesicles | (takes items into cell)
99
fluid mosaic model
Artists diagram of a cell membrane. main structure is the phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. proteins and lipids are embedded in the bilayer (cholesterol provides stability. carbohydrates attach to the outer surface. cytoskeleton attaches to the inner surface
100
what are the membrane proteins
``` Transport Proteins Receptor Proteins Recognition Proteins: Enzymes: Cytoskeletal Proteins Cell Adhesion Proteins ```
101
Transport Proteins
channel proteins and carrier proteins
102
channel proteins
certain small water soluble molecules can simply pass through, selective due to charge of molecule and channel protein, some channels are “gated” – can open and close if charges change
103
carrier proteins
can move larger molecules across the membrane by changing shape, specific shape for certain molecules or ions
104
Receptor Proteins
bind with specific molecules (like a lock and key), which causes the cell to change its activity.
105
Recognition Proteins
help the body to recognize “self” vs. foreign cells, as a function of the immune system.
106
Enzymes
catalyze chemical reactions
107
Cytoskeletal Proteins
allow for support, shape and movement of cells. Cell Adhesion Proteins hold cells together,
108
Cell Adhesion Proteins
hold cells together, forming tissues and organs.
109
Passive Transport:
molecules move along the concentration gradient, from higher to lower concentration. may not require a transport protein.
110
does passive transport require ATP
no
111
during passive transport Facilitated diffusion (using a protein) channel proteins allow _______ molecules through,
nonlipid
112
during passive transport, Simple diffusion molecules must be __________
small with no electrical charge.
113
during passive transport (facilitated diffusion) , leak channels are always______
open
114
during passive transport (facilitated diffusion), gated channels are _____ unless stimulated to ______
closed, open
115
Active transport
moves molecules against the concentration gradient, from lower to higher concentration. requires carrier proteins which change shape to move molecules across the membrane, or else involves vesicles (endocytosis and exocytosis)
116
List the two types of excitable tissues
nerve & muscle
117
In nerves, action potentials are used to ______
transmit nerve impulses.
118
In muscles action potentials______
action potentials trigger muscle contractions.
119
structures of a nerve
Axon, myelin sheath, endoneurium, perineurium, fascicle, epineurium.
120
structures of a multipolar neuron
cell body, nucleous, axon, dendrites, myelin sheath, schwann cells, axon terminals
121
Neurons are highly ______
irritable
122
where the action potential begins on a multipolar neuron, and where it ends
Axon hillock - Axon terminal
123
action potentials are electrical impulses carried along __________ & __________
muscle cell membranes and neuron axons,
124
action potentials are only generated by ______ & _________
muscle cells and neurons.
125
An action potential in the axon of a neuron is a _______
nerve impulse
126
Explain the differences in distributions of charges when membranes have no potential versus when they do have potential
When a membrane has no potential there are equal amounts of positive and negative, creating no charge and when a membrane has potential there are unequal amounts of positive and negative charges.
127
do action potentials decrease in strength over distance.
no
128
Describe the differences between the locations of positive and negative charges in a plasma membrane.
Positive charge: outside | Negative charge: inside
129
Potassium (K): more abundant in the________ fluid in a resting cell.
intercellular
130
Sodium (Na+): more abundant in the________ fluid in a resting cell.
extracellular
131
Resting Membrane Potential voltage
(–70 mV)
132
Threshold potential voltage
(-55 to -50 mV)
133
Full Depolarization voltage
+30 mV
134
Full Repolarization voltage
(-70mV)
135
Hyperpolarization voltage
(little below -70mv)
136
do pumps require atp
yes
137
pumps move substances ______________
against concentration gradient
138
sodium voltage gated channels are closed when the intracellular environment is ________
negative
139
sodium voltage gated channels are open when the intracellular environment is ______
positive
140
durring depolarization, Na+ gates are _____ & K+ gates are ______
open & closed
141
true or false: all-or-none phenomenon – action potentials either happen completely, or not at all
true
142
durring repolarization as sodium gates _____, voltage-sensitive K+ gates ___
close, Open
143
durring repolarization what exits the cell and internal negativity of the resting neuron is restored
(K+) potassium
144
durring hyperpolarization potassium gates are ____ causing an efflux
open
145
the ___________ restore the resting ionic conditions
sodium potassium pump
146
the sodium potassium pump occurs durring ______
hyperpolarization
147
durring the propagation of an action potential ions of the extracellular fluid (sodium) move toward ______________
the area of greatest negative charge
148
durring the propagation of an action potential a current is created that depolarizes the adjacent membrane in a ________ direction
forward
149
durring the propagation of an action potential where sodium gates are _____, potassium gates are _____ and create a current flow
closing, open
150
the absolute refractory period prevents the neuron from _______________
generating another action potential
151
time from the opening of the Na+ activation gates until the closing of inactivation gates
absolute refractory period
152
Myelination and Larger Axon Diameter _______ Conduction of an Action Potential
Speed Up
153
impulse jumps over sections of the fiber covered with insulating myelin
saltatory conduction
154
What a structure can do depends on its ________
specific form
155
All cells depend on organ systems to meet their ________
survival needs

physiology (14 decks)

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