lecture exam 4 Flashcards by britt rank

Three different pressures are important to breathing

atmospheric pressure

intrapulmonary pressure (pressure in the alveoli)

intrapleural pressure (pressure in the pleural cavity between the lung and the thoracic wall)

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atmospheric pressure is ______ mmHg

760

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intrapulmonary pressure is the pressure in the ______

alveoli

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intrapleural pressure pressure in the _______ between the lung and the thoracic wall

pleural cavity

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intrapleural pressure should always be __ mmHg less than intrapulmonary pressure

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sucking pressure that holds lungs open or glued to the walls of the chest cavity

intrapleural pressure

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the flow of air along a pressure gradient is dependent upon the_________ of the airways

resistance

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parasympathetic stimulation _______ resistance of the smooth muscle of the airways:

increases

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parasympathetic contraction in the lungs =

bronchoconstriction

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sympathetic stimulation _______ resistance of the smooth muscle of the airways:

decreases

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the flow of air along a _________ is dependent upon the resistance of the airways

pressure gradient

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parasympathetic stimulation increases resistance of the _________ of the airways:

smooth muscle

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sympathetic stimulation relaxation in the lungs =

bronchodilation

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diseases such as _________, ___________ & ________ can also increase resistance in the airway

asthma, chronic bronchitis and obstructive emphysema

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COPD stands for

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

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how stretchable the lungs are as they fill with air

Compliance:

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diseases such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and obstructive emphysema can also increase ________

resistance

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COPD is a combination or _________ & ___________

chronic bronchitis + obstructive emphysema

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airway surface tension is decreased by the secretion of ____________ by alveolar cells

pulmonary surfactant

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degree of compliance in the lungs is due to _____ of connective tissue in the lung

elasticity

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degree of lung compliance is due to _______ tension

surface tension

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degree of lung compliance is due to __________ tension caused by water within the alveoli

alveolar surface tension

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The concentrations of O2 and CO2 are measured as_______

partial pressures.

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O2 enters and CO2 leaves the blood along________________

partial pressure gradients

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degree of lung compliance is due to:elasticity of ________ in the lung

connective tissue

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degree of lung compliance is due to alveolar surface tension caused by water within the _______

alveoli

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The concentrations of____ & __ are measured as partial pressures

O2 and CO2

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_____ enters and ___ leaves the blood along partial pressure gradients

O2 enters and CO2 leaves

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although carbon dioxide has a lower partial pressure gradient it is __ times more soluble in______ than oxygen

20, plasma

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carbon dioxide diffuses in equal amounts with _______

oxygen

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although carbon dioxide has a lower partial pressure gradient it is 20 times more soluble in ________ than _______

plasma than oxygen

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most oxygen is bound to hemoglobin as ___________ and small amounts dissolve in the ______

oxyhemoglobin, plasma

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gas transport is transport of ____ in the blood

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although carbon dioxide has a lower partial pressure gradient it is 20 times more _______ in plasma than oxygen

soluble

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hemoglobin releases O2 or has CO2 bind to it when temperature is ____ & CO2 levels are _____

warm, high

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Changes in the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 means

(how well O2 sticks to hemoglobin)

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carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three forms

dissolved in ____

chemically bound to_____

__________ ion in plasma

dissolved in plasma

chemically bound to hemoglobin

bicarbonate ion in plasma

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CO2 transport dissolved in plasma:_____%

7-10

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CO2 transport chemically bound to hemoglobin: _____% is carried in RBCs as _____________

20-23, carbaminohemoglobin

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CO2 transport bicarbonate ion in plasma:___% is transported as _____________ (HCO3–)

70, bicarbonate ion

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CO2 acts as an important__________ regulator in the blood

pH regulator

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too much CO2 (hypercapnia) = blood becomes more______

acidic

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too much CO2 is called

hypercapnia

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too little CO2 (hypocapnia) = blood becomes more_____

basic

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pH in respiratory system below 7.35

(respiratory acidosis)

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pH in respiratory system above 7.45

(respiratory alkalosis)

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too little CO2 is called

hypocapnia

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respiration is regulated by the body in PO2 and PCO2 are monitored by ________ in the medulla oblongata, the carotid arteries and the aorta

chemoreceptors

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PO2 and PCO2 are monitored by chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, the________ & _________

carotid arteries and the aorta

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Arterial PCO2 plays the primary role in regulating ___________

minute by minute respiration

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an increase in arterial__ concentration can trigger an increase in _________ even if the H+ is not from carbonic acid some other causes are ___ & fat _______

H+, respiration

protein n fat metabolism

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Increased respiration due to low oxygen levels is called

hypoxic drive.

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arterial PO2 (this is secondary in importance to PCO2) must fall by more than____% to trigger an _______ in respiration

40, increase

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an increase in arterial H+ concentration can trigger an _____ in respiration even if the H+ is not from ______

increase, carbonic acid

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P(partial pressure) CO2 increases H+ concentration _______

increases

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P(partial pressure) CO2 increase pH __________

decreases

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P(partial pressure) CO2 increase breathing rate _______

increases

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P(partial pressure) CO2 decreases H+ concentration _____

decreases

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P(partial pressure) CO2 decreases pH _____

increases

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P(partial pressure) CO2 decreases breathing rate _____

decreases

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central chemoreceptors in the brainstem only detect ___ and not ___

CO2 and not O2

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peripherial chemoreceptors detect_____&______ (aorta, carotid sinus)

CO2 and O2

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regardless of the source, any additional acid _______ and _______ breathing

increases and changes

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how deep your breath is

magnitude

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_________ in the brainstem only detect CO2 and not O2

central chemoreceptors

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urine should be ______ only

trash

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________ detect CO2 and O2 (aorta, carotid sinus)

peripherial chemoreceptors

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waste removal from sterile body cells

excretion

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fenestrated capillary bed have ______ like swiss cheese

holes

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kidney tubules are __ cell thick

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glomerular capillaries are about __ mmHg

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any fluid squeezed out of the blood is in the __________

bowmans capsule

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_______ & ________ are excretion of urinary system

urine and sweat

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______ of the blood is filtered by kidney

plasma

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_______ activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells)

increased activity

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__________ activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells)

decreased activity

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increased activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ rate to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant

increases

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decreased activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ rate to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant

decrease

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the urinary system filters ___ liters of blood daily, removing ____, ______ wastes, excess______ etc.

200, toxins, metabolic, ions

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increased activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ magnitude to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant

increases

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decreased activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ magnitude to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant

decrease

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filters 200 liters of blood daily, removing toxins, metabolic wastes, excess ions, etc.

the urinary system

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increased activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) increase magnitude and rate to keep _____ & _____ levels constant

O2 and CO2 levels constant

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decreased activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) decreasd rate and magnitude to keep ______& _______ levels constant

O2 and CO2

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the urinary system regulates ______ (BP) and ______ of the blood

volume, chemical makeup

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regulates volume (BP) and chemical makeup of the blood

the urinary system

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maintains the proper balance between water and salts, and acids and bases

the urinary system

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production of____ to help increase blood pressure and erythropoietin to stimulate RBC production

renin

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_______ during prolonged fasting is another renal function

gluconeogenesis

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activation of vitamin __ is another important renal function

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the urinary system maintains the proper balance between______& ______, ______&________

water and salts, and acids and bases

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important system for excretion

the urinary system

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production of renin to help increase________& ________ to stimulate RBC production

blood pressure and erythropoietin

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production of renin to help increase blood pressure and erythropoietin to stimulate_________

RBC production

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every nephron has ___ fenestrated capillary beds

two

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every nephron has two fenestrated capillary beds, what are they?

glomerulus, peritubular capillaries

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each glomerulus capillary bed is fed by an _______ arteriole drained by an ________ arteriole

afferent, efferent

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each glomerulus is ________ by an efferent arteriole

drained

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is blood pressure in the glomerulus high?

yes

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each glomerulus is____ by an afferent arteriole

fed

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blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because ________ are high-resistance vessels

arterioles

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each ________ is fed by an afferent arteriole

glomerulus

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blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because_______ arterioles have_______ diameters than ______ arterioles

afferent, larger, efferent

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each glomerulus is drained by an ________ arteriole

efferent

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blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because afferent arterioles have larger _______ than efferent arteriole

diameters

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each________ is drained by an efferent arteriole

glomerulus

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blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because arterioles are ____________ vessels

high-resistance

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_________&______ are forced out of the blood throughout the entire length of the glomerulus

fluids and solutes

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afferent and efferent arterioles offer______ resistance to blood flow

high

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_____ declines from ~95mm Hg in renal arteries to ~8 mm Hg in renal veins

blood pressure

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: filtration of blood plasma by the glomerular capillaries

glomerular filtration

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fluids and solutes are forced out of the_______ throughout the entire length of the glomerulus

blood

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afferent and efferent arterioles offer high resistance to _________

blood flow

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blood pressure declines from ____mm Hg in renal arteries to____ mm Hg in renal veins

~95, ~8

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filtrate is similar to_______ but lacks large______ (albumin maintains osmotic pressure of the blood)

blood plasma, proteins

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fluids and solutes are forced out of the blood throughout the entire length of the _________

glomerulus

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afferent and efferent _______ offer high resistance to blood flow

arterioles

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blood pressure declines from ~95mm Hg in _______ to ~8 mm Hg in ______

renal arteries, renal veins

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______ is similar to blood plasma but lacks large proteins (albumin maintains osmotic pressure of the blood)

filtrate

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approximately ______% of the plasma passes through the filtration membrane and into the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)

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approximately___% of the plasma, blood cells and platelets remain in the glomerular capillaries and circulate through the efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries

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changes in glomerular filtration rate (filtrate formed per minute) normally result from changes in__________

glomerular blood pressure

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approximately 20% of the _______passes through the filtration membrane and into the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)

plasma

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approximately80% of the _______, _______ & __________ remain in the glomerular capillaries and circulate through the efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries

plasma, blood cells and platelets

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changes in ______________ (filtrate formed per minute) normally result from changes in glomerular blood pressure

glomerular filtration rate

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increased glomerular BP leads to ________ Glomerular Filtration Rate

increased

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approximately 20% of the plasma passes through the filtration membrane and into the____________

glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)

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approximately80% of the plasma, blood cells and platelets remain in the __________ and circulate through the efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries

glomerular capillaries

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_______ glomerular BP leads to increased Glomerular Filtration Rate

increased

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GFR is adjusted by the ______________ to ensure proper urine chemistry and volume (which corresponds to proper blood chemistry and volume)

juxtaglomerular apparatus

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approximately 20% of the plasma passes through the ____________ and into the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)

filtration membrane

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approximately80% of the plasma, blood cells and platelets remain in the glomerular capillaries and circulate through the___________ & _____________

efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries

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GFR is adjusted by the juxtaglomerular apparatus to ensure proper ____________& _________(which corresponds to proper blood chemistry and volume)

urine chemistry and volume

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decreased glomerular BP leads to ________ Glomerular Filtration Rate

decreased

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______ cells are enlarged, smooth muscle cells

granular

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Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA) consists of ________ cells , ________ cells & __________ cells

granular cells, macula densa cells, mesangial cells

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granular cells have______ granules containing______

secretory , renin

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__________ cells are tall, closely packed distal tubule cells

macula densa

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mesangial cells: have_________&_________ properties

phagocytic and contractile

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granular cells act as ________ to detect BP

mechanoreceptors

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_________ cells influence capillary filtration

mesangial cells

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_______ cells lie adjacent to granular cells

macula densa

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if the GFR is too high needed substances (nutrients, necessary ions, etc.) cannot be _________ quickly enough and are lost in the _____

reabsorbed, urine

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three mechanisms control the GFR

renal ___________ (intrinsic system)

___________ controls

_______________ mechanism (the renin-angiotensin system

renal autoregulation (intrinsic system)

neural controls

hormonal mechanism (the renin-angiotensin system

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macula densa cells function as __________ or ___________ for urine

chemoreceptors or osmoreceptors

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if the GFR is too low everything is ________ including wastes that are normally disposed of through the _______

reabsorbed, urine

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under normal conditions, ________________ maintains a nearly constant glomerular filtration rate

renal autoregulation

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macula densa cells function as chemoreceptors or osmoreceptors for ______

urine

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autoregulation entails two types of control

flow-dependent tubuloglomerular feedback:

myogenic

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under normal conditions, renal autoregulation maintains a nearly constant________________

glomerular filtration rate

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type of autoregulation for GFR : responds to changes in pressure (baroreceptors) in the renal blood vessels

myogenic

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juxtaglomerular apparatus senses chemistry changes in the filtrate that is transforming into urine

flow-dependent tubuloglomerular feedback:

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the ___________ that regulates blood pressure can influence filtration rate

baroreceptor reflex

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when the _________ nervous system is active renal blood vessels are maximally dilated to increase filtration

parasympathetic

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the sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the ____________ mechanism

renin-angiotensin

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the baroreceptor reflex that ___________ can influence filtration rate

regulates blood pressure

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when the parasympahetic nervous system is active renal blood vessels are maximally dilated to___________

increase filtration

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when the parasympathetic nervous system is active _________ mechanisms prevail

autoregulation

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the baroreceptor reflex that regulates blood pressure can influence __________

filtration rate

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when theparasympathetic nervous system is active renal blood vessels are _________ to increase filtration

maximally dilated

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increased EDV causes the heart to release _________ (ANP) to increase GFR

atrial natriuretic peptide

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under stress ____________& ______________ are released by the adrenal medulla via the sympathetic nervous system

epinephrine and norepinephrine

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increased EDV causes the heart to release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) to_______ GFR

increase

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under stress afferent arterioles _______ and filtration is_______

constrict, inhibited

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under stress epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the _________ via the sympathetic nervous system

adrenal medulla

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the___________ nervous system also stimulates the renin-angiotensin mechanism

sympathetic,

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increased EDV causes the heart to release____________ to ________ GFR

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), increase

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the sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the ____________

renin-angiotensin mechanism

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increased ______ causes the heart to release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) to increase____

EDV, GFR

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vasodilator produced by the vascular endothelium

nitric oxide:

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: a powerful vasoconstrictor secreted by tubule cells

endothelin

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vasoconstrictor of renal vasculature

adenosine:

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vasodilators produced in response to sympathetic stimulation and angiotensin II

prostaglandins

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prostaglandins are thought to prevent _____ damage when peripheral resistance is ______

renal, increased

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prostaglandins vasodilators produced in response to _____________ stimulation and ________

sympathetic, angiotensin II

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prostaglandin types

PGE2 and PGI2

nitric oxide
adenosine:
endothelin

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are thought to prevent renal damage when peripheral resistance is increased

prostaglandins

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tubular reabsorption: selective body reabsorption of substances such as______, _______ & ________ etc., by the ___________ back to the blood

water, amino acids, glucose, kidney tubule

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water is reabsorbed by _______; all other substances reabsorbed by________, ______ or _________ transport

osmosis, diffusion, passive or active transport

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a transepithelial process whereby most tubule contents are returned to the blood

tubular reabsorption:

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selective body reabsorption of substances such as water, amino acids, glucose, etc., by the kidney tubule back to the blood

tubular reabsorption:

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in tubular reabsorption transported substances move through _____ membranes

three

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tubular reabsorption:__________&________ membranes of tubule cells

luminal and basolateral

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tubular reabsorption: a ________ process whereby most tubule contents are returned to the ______

transepithelial, blood

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tubular reabsorption: _______& ________capillaries

endothelium of peritubular

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only Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and some Na+ are reabsorbed via ________ pathways through _______

paracellular, tight junctions

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in tubular reabsorption most reabsorption takes place in the ________

proximal tubule

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in tubular reabsorption all organic________ are reabsorbed

nutrients

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in tubular reabsorption water and ion reabsorption is _________ controlled

hormonally

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exists for nearly every substance that is actively reabsorbed

a transport maximum (Tm):

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in a transport maximum when the specific__________ for that substance are saturated in tubules, excess of that substance is____________

protein carriers, excreted in the urine

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Na+ is not reabsorbed in the_________ limb of the loop of Henle

descending

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of the total energy spent by kidneys,____% is used for Na+ transport

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______ follows reabsorbed sodium by osmosis, which has a main effect on__________&_______________

water, blood volume and blood pressure

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an active____________ pump in ________ membrane is essential for Na+ reabsorption

Na+ - K+ ATPase, basolateral

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Na+ is actively pumped out of the ______ limb into the interstitial fluid, making it ____________

ascending, hypertonic

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water is reabsorbed through ______ from the_______ limb

osmosis, descending

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tubular secretion: rapid removal of_____ (i.e., ammonia, H+ and K+ ions) from blood plasma to the distal tubule for removal through the _______

toxins, urine

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is a byproduct of protein processing; the liver detoxifies it to form urea, which is filtered out by the kidney

ammonia (NH3)

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___________ liters excreated per day of urine

0.6–2.5

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: rapid removal of toxins (i.e., ammonia, H+ and K+ ions) from blood plasma to the distal tubule for removal through the urine

tubular secretion

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ammonia (NH3) is a byproduct of _____________; the liver detoxifies it to form ______, which is filtered out by the kidney

protein processing, urea

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give urine the dark amber color

urochrome pigment

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average pH of urine

5.5-6.5

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urine is composed of _____,____,____ &_____; very small amounts of _____

water, urea, salts & minerals, body cells

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cortical nephrons ___% of nephrons

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nephrons produce dilute urine

cortical nephrons

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what type of nephrons have loops of Henle that deeply invade the medulla

juxtamedullary nephrons:

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the number of solute particles dissolved in 1L of water

osmolality

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cortical nephrons located in the ______

cortex

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what kind of nephrons produce concentrated urine to prevent blood dehydration

juxtamedullary nephrons:

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osmolality reflects the solution’s ability to cause _________

osmosis

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body fluids are measured in _____

milliosmols (mOsm)

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the kidneys keep the solute load of body fluids constant at about ______mOsm accomplished by the____________

300, countercurrent mechanism

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interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle (countercurrent multiplier) and the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels (countercurrent exchanger)

Countercurrent Mechanism

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the solute concentration in the loop of Henle ranges from ______ mOsm to______ mOsm

300, 1200

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interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle

(countercurrent multiplier

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dissipation of the medullary osmotic gradient is prevented because the blood in the ______ equilibrates with the ______________

vasa recta, interstitial fluid

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the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels

(countercurrent exchanger)

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_______ of the medullary osmotic gradient is prevented because the blood in the vasa recta _________ with the interstitial fluid

dissipation, equilibrates

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is the descending loop of Henle permeable or impermeable to solutes

impermeable

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_______ in the deep medullary regions are permeable to urea

collecting ducts

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is the descending loop of Henle permeable or impermeable to water

permeable to water

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collecting ducts in the deep medullary regions are permeable to ______

urea

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is the ascending loop of Henle is permeable or impermeable to solutes

permeable

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the ______ is a countercurrent exchanger

vasa recta

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is the ascending loop of Henle permeable or impermeable to water

impermeable

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the vasa recta is a countercurrent exchanger that maintains the _______ & delivers______ to the cells in the area

osmotic gradient, blood

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filtrate is diluted in the ________ loop of Henle

ascending

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is created by allowing this filtrate to continue into the renal pelvis

dilute urine

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filtrate is _______ in the ascending loop of Henle

diluted

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in dilute urine collecting ducts remain_________ to water; no further water reabsorption occurs

impermeable

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dilute urine is created by allowing this filtrate to continue into the ________ as long as ___________ is not being secreted

renal pelvis, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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in dilute urine_______&_______can be removed by active and passive mechanisms

sodium and selected ions

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urine osmolality can be as low as____ mOsm (one-sixth that of _______)

50, plasma

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_________ inhibits diuresis

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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in the presence of ADH, up to__% of the water in filtrate is reabsorbed

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antidiuretic hormone (ADH) inhibits diuresis this equalizes the ______of the filtrate and the________

osmolality, interstitial fluid

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ADH-dependent water reabsorption is called

facultative water reabsorption

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___________ is the signal to produce concentrated urine

ADH

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the kidneys’ ability to respond depends upon the

high medullary osmotic gradient

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Aldosterone from the _________causes_____ reabsorption and corresponding______reabsorption, which increases________ and results in ____________urine.

adrenal glands, Na+, water, blood pressure, concentrated (darker)

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Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, a.k.a. vasopressin) from the ___________________ acts on the _______ to cause _______ reabsorption* and prevent______dehydration, resulting in ________ urine.

pituitary gland neurohypophysis, collecting duct, water, blood, concentrated

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_______ inhibits the release of ADH, causing excessive urination and dehydration.

Alcohol

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top 6 reasons for renal failure

___________ from waste product retention

metabolic _________ (can’t secrete enough H+)

___________ imbalances

loss of ________ proteins – leads to edema of tissues

inability to vary _________________; body fluids can become hypo- or hypertonic

_______________ inadequate erythropoietin production

toxicity from waste product retention

metabolic acidosis (can’t secrete enough H+)

electrolyte imbalances

loss of plasma proteins – leads to edema of tissues

inability to vary urine concentration; body fluids can become hypo- or hypertonic

anemia: inadequate erythropoietin production

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does too much sodium increase or decrease blood pressure

increase

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anemia from renal failure is due to inadequate __________ production

inadequate erythropoietin production

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in renal failure loss of plasma proteins – leads to

edema of tissues

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can lung tissue be regenerated

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4 steps of respiration

ventilation
external respiration
transport of o2 and CO2
internal respiration

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increase in blood volume means a _____ in blood pressure an example would be during _____

decrease, inhalation

a decrease in blood volume results in a ____ of blood pressure an example would be during ________

increase, exhalation

air moves from area of ___ pressure to area of ___ pressure

high, low

does normal exhalation involve contracting muscles

does forced exhalation involve contracting muscles

internal intercostals and abdominal

atmospheric pressure is __ mmHg

760

amount of air forcefully exhaled after a forceful inhalation

vital capacity

amount of air forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation

expiratory reserve volume

amount of air forcefully inhaled after a tidal volume inhalation

inspiratory reserve volume

amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing

tidal volume

__________ pressure should always be 4mmHg less than _______ pressure

intrapleural, intrapulmonary

sucking pressure that holds lungs open like they are glued to chest cavity

intrapleural pressure

P stands for

partial pressure

when CO2 increases H+ concentration _________,

pH __________ & breathing _________

increases, decreases, increases

chemoreceptors in the brainstem that only detect CO2

central chemoreceptors

chemoreceptors that detect CO2 & O2 (aorta, carotid arteries)

peripheral chemoreceptors

when CO2 decreases H+ concentration _________,

pH __________ & breathing _________

decreases, increases, decreases

any additional acid ______ breathing

increases

waste removal from sterile body cells

excretion

holes in capillary bed that look like swiss cheese

fenestrated capillary bed

kidney tubules are __ cells thick

what is larger an afferent or efferent arteriole

afferent

glomerular capillaries are about ___ mmHg

true or false constriction on either side of the glomerular capillaries will make fluid waste product come out of blood

true

any fluid squeezed out of the blood collects in the _____

bowmans capsule

excretion of the urinary system

urine and sweat

only ____ of the blood is filtered in the kidney

plasma

glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure is ___ mmHg

blood colloid osmotic pressure is ___ mmHg

capsular hydrostatic pressure is __ mmHg

net filtration pressure is __________ minus ___________ minus __________ to equal around __ mmHg

glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure,
blood colloid osmotic pressure,
capsular hydrostatic pressure,
10

macula densa measure _____ of blood

wetness

true or false there is a juxtaglomerular apparatus on every nephron

true

natri refers to

sodium

if there is not enough blood for every nephron _____, ________ & ________ are used for vasoconstriction/ dialation to alternate blood to nephrons

nitric oxide, adenosine, endothelin

movement from the filtrate (urine) to the blood

reabsorption

movement from the blood the filtrate (urine)

secretion

movement of ____ drives the movement of everything

sodium

15% of nephrons are _________

juxtamedullary

average pH of urine

nephron that specialize in producing healthy urine

cortical

dryness

osmolarity

nephron that specialize in making concentrated urine

juxtamedullary

high osmolarity numbers are

dry

is the inside of the kidney super wet or dry

dry

sensible

can be measured

insensible

can not be measured

facultative

excess water loss (optional)

obligatory

necessary water loss

if you need to produce concentrated urine the inside of the kidney needs to be concentrated by ADH opening ______ in the ________

aquaporins and collecting ducts

phosphoric acid

proteins

lactic acid

carbs

keto acid

lipids

uric acid

nucleic acid

true or false water intake must equal water output

true

increases in _______________ (concentration) trigger hypothalamic thirst center and release of antidiuretic hormone

plasma osmolality

water is lost through ___________ ,______ ,_________ & _______

respiration, sweating, defecation and urination

water gains absorption from_________ system

digestive system

increases in plasma osmolality (concentration) trigger _______________ center and release of _________

hypothalamic thirst, antidiuretic hormone

water gains metabolism (water as a byproduct during_________

electron transport chain)

water losses urine minimum _____ ml urine/day)

500

water losses evaporation through________ system

respiratory

water losses evaporation through _______, __________ & ______

skin
sweat
feces

in dehydration water loss exceeds water intake and the body is in _________ (______ BP and cells _______)

negative fluid balance, decrease BP and cells shrin

renal insufficiency or an extraordinary amount of water ingested quickly can lead to cellular overhydration, or water intoxication ( BP and cells swell/burst)

hypotonic hydration

water loss exceeds water intake and the body is in negative fluid balance (decrease BP and cells shrink)

dehydration

in hypotonic hydration renal insufficiency or an extraordinary amount of water ingested quickly can lead to ____________ or __________ (_______ BP and cells ________)

cellular overhydration, or water intoxication

increased, swell/burst

atypical accumulation of interstitial fluid, leading to swelling

edema (a.k.a. 3rd spacing

3 effects of disruption in solute concentration:

1) ________ shrinking or swelling of cells, and edema
2) changes in__________ and excitability of nerves and all muscles
3) _________ concentration fluctuation: acid /base balance

1) tonicity: shrinking or swelling of cells, and edema
2) changes in membrane potential and excitability of nerves and all muscles
3) H+ concentration fluctuation: acid /base balance

edema (a.k.a.

3rd spacing

pH of arterial blood is

7.4

edema (a.k.a. 3rd spacing): atypical accumulation of ________, leading to_______

interstitial fluid, swelling

pH of venous blood and interstitial fluid is

7.35

pH of intracellular fluid is

7.0

arterial blood pH falls below 7.35

acidosis or acidemia =

arterial blood pH is above 7.45

alkalosis or alkalemia =

death occurs if blood pH goes outside the range of______ for more than a few seconds

6.8-8.0

H+ are continually being added to the body fluids because of_________ formation from CO2

carbonic acid

: abnormal increase in CO2

respiratory acidosis

H+ are continually being added to the body fluids because of digestion of______, especially _______

food, proteins

abnormal decrease in CO2

respiratory alkalosis:

H+ are continually being added to the body fluids because of acids produced during ________, like_______ acid during______

metabolism, lactic, heavy exercise

metabolic acidosis or alkalosis : abnormal decrease in HCO3-

metabolic acidosis

respiratory acidosis or alkalosis respiratory disease (reduced gas exchange)

respiratory acidosis

metabolic acidosis or alkalosis : abnormal increase in HCO3-

metabolic alkalosis

respiratory acidosis or alkalosis depression of the respiratory center by drugs or disease

respiratory acidosis

respiratory acidosis or alkalosis hyperventilation caused by fever, anxiety or aspirin poisoning

respiratory alkalosis

respiratory acidosis or alkalosis nerve or muscle disorder that reduces respiratory muscle ability

respiratory acidosis

metabolic acidosis or alkalosis diarrhea – loss of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

metabolic acidosis

metabolic acidosis or alkalosis using baking soda (antacids) to treat heartburn and stomach irritation

metabolic alkalosis

rapid fat catabolism due to diabetes mellitus, starvation, or Atkin’s diet (keto acidosis)

metabolic acidosis

vomiting – loss of gastric acids

metabolic alkalosis

strenuous exercise (lactic acid buildup)

metabolic acidosis

due to effects of acid/base imbalances: changes in excitability of _____&_____(Na+ and K+ on the wrong sides of cell membranes)

nerves and all muscles

metabolic acidosis or alkalosis alcohol consumption

metabolic acidosis

Possible effects of acid/base imbalances _________ activity changes

enzyme

metabolic acidosis or alkalosis kidney failure

metabolic acidosis

if excessive__ is secreted by the kidneys, excessive___ is retained

H+ , K+

3 Defense against acid-base fluctuations

chemical buffers,

respiration,

removal of acid/base by the kidney (hours)

molecules that can “sponge up” excess H+ until they can be removed from the body

chemical buffers (seconds)

3 types of chemical buffers

bicarbonate buffer system (extracellular fluids)

phosphate buffer system (intracellular fluids and urine)
protein buffer system (all over the body)

chemical buffers that deal with extracellular fluid

bicarbonate buffer system

chemical buffers that work all over the body

-phosphate buffer system

chemical buffers that deal with the intracellular fluids and urine

phosphate buffer system

The digestive system does four basic things:

moves food along the_________________ and mixes it (motility)

secretes_________fluids

________ food

absorbs _________ and moves them into the _________

moves food along the alimentary canal and mixes it (motility)

secretes digestive fluids

digests food

absorbs nutrients and moves them into the blood stream

waves of smooth muscle contraction propel food forward

peristalsis

(small intestine only): mixes with ring-like contractions

segmentation

deglutition

swallowing

emesis

= vomiting

mass movement

= bowel movement

defecation

= elimination

food can be digested what 2 ways

chemically

mechanically

type of digestion where food is broken into small pieces

mechanically –

type of chemical digestion carbohydrates

monosaccharides

type of chemical digestion proteins

amino acids

type of chemical digestion lipids

fatty acids + glycerol (monoglyceride)

type of chemical digestion nucleic acids

nucleotides

Food is chewed and mixed with ______

saliva.

Chewing breaks food into small pieces and increases __________ for chemical digestion.

surface area

saliva contains the enzyme ____________ that breaks down carbohydrates into __________

salivary amylase, disaccharides

saliva rinses away food particles and _________ pH

buffers

swallowed food is propelled through the _________ by _________ waves, and then enters the _______

esophagus , peristaltic, stomach

peristaltic waves reaching the stomach cause the ________________(cardiac) sphincter to open the ___________

gastroesophageal, stomach

The stomach is the beginning of the ________

GI tract

the stomach _______ as it is filled with the bolus

expands

the stomach will release ______ into the small intestine a little at a time

chyme

the rate of stomach emptying depends on the the _____ of food, __________ food there is, and _________ the food is

type, how much, how wet

mechanically churns the bolus and mixes it with the stomach secretions:

The stomach

important for the absorption of vitamin B12

Intrinsic Factor:

The stomach _______________ churns the bolus and mixes it with the stomach secretions:

mechanically

lubrication and protection

alkaline mucus:

) – helps to break large food particles into smaller ones

HCl (from parietal cells

The stomach mechanically churns the bolus and mixes it with the _________

stomach secretions:

pepsinogen (from chief cells) + HCl =

pepsin (active protein digesting enzyme)

in the small intestine _____ leaves stomach and enters duodenum;

chyme ,

3 Secretions added to the chyme through the hepatopancreatic duct

enzymes

alkaline solution

bile (liver):

bile is produced in

liver)

alkaline solution is found in

(pancreas and bile duct):

secretions from the ________& __________ are added to the chyme in the duodenum through the _____________& _______________

pancreas and liver

hepatopancreatic duct and ampulla

salty lipid that emulsifies fats (breaks them into small droplets with more surface area)

bile (liver)

in the small intestine chyme leaves stomach and enters _______;

duodenum

neutralizes acidic pH

alkaline solution (pancreas and bile duct):

enzymes are released in an inactive form and are activated in the duodenum to perform ______

hydrolysis

examples of hydrolysis

pancreatic amylase (carbs to disaccharides)

lipase (lipids)

, trypsin (hydrophilic protein residues),

chymotrypsin (hydrophobic protein residues),

nuclease (DNA and RNA)

are released in an inactive form and are activated in the duodenum to perform hydrolysis

enzymes

breaks down starches into disaccharides; secreted by salivary glands and pancreas

amylase:

: breaks down disaccharides into glucose; secreted by small intestine

carbohydrase

enzymes are released in an _____ form and are activated in the ________ to perform hydrolysis

inactive, duodenum

breaks down proteins into amino acids; secreted by stomach chief cells and pancreas

protease (pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin):

breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids; secreted by pancreas and small intestine

lipase:

breaks down nucleic acids into nucleotides; secreted by pancreas

nuclease:

true or false Digestive Enzyme do not have an optimal pH

false

does The liver processes major nutrients for immediate use, storage or both

both

The liver converts glucose to

glycogen

The liver can also convert______&______ to fat to be stored in ______

proteins and glucose, adipose tissue

The liver can convert ____________ into what’s needed

stored nutrients

The liver detoxifies __________ as well as _____ and foreign_______

body waste, drugs, compounds

The liver synthesizes ________ proteins

plasma

The liver stores ______, ______, _______, _____ & ______

glycogen, fats, iron, copper and many vitamins

The liver activates vitamin__ (along with the kidney)

macrophages within the liver remove _______& _____

old RBCs and bacteria

The liver excretes _______& ________(from old RBCs) in bile

cholesterol and bilirubin

Small Intestine mixes food with__________&_________ secretions during segmentation, and slowly moves food along

pancreatic and liver, segmentation

small intestine finishes _________ digestion

chemical

in absorption of nutrients the lining of the small intestine has lots of surface area created by its ___________ (containing_______&_______

circular folds

villi and microvilli)

absorb monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides

blood vessels

lymphatic lacteal vessels absorb ___________ & _______

fatty acids and glycerol (monoglycerides)

Large Intestine absorbs ____, ______, ______, ____

electrolytes, water, vitamins, minerals

Large Intestine normal bacteria (e.g., E. coli) synthesize ________& _______, which can then be absorbed

B complex vitamins and vitamin K,

undigested food matter, bacteria, water, bilirubin and small amounts of salt

feces

is released by bacteria as they ferment carbohydrates

intestinal gas (flatus)

smooth muscle of the digestive tract is self-_______

excitatory

is the smooth muscle of the digestive tract voluntary or involuntary

involuntary

motility and secretion can be modified by _______& ________control

nerve and hormonal

hormones are secreted by the _______ tissue within the _______

endocrine, digestive tract

hormones are transported by the ___ and _____ other regions of the tract

blood, regulate

external environment for the digestive process

GI Tract

extrinsic control by ___ centers

CNS

intrinsic control by _____ centers

local

regulation of digestion involves 4 things

______& _________ stimuli

______________ receptors

_________ (fluid concentration),

presence of substrate in the_____

mechanical and chemical stimuli

stretch receptors

osmolarity (fluid concentration),

presence of substrate in the lumen

Receptors of the GI Tract

mechano- and chemoreceptors

Receptors of the GI Tract activate or inhibit_____

digestive glands

Receptors of the GI Tract mix _____contents and move them along

lumen

mechano- and chemoreceptors of the gi tract respond to:

stretch (measures volume),
osmolarity,
pH
presence of food substrate, type of food (proteins, carbs, lipids, nucleic acids) and end products of digestion

stimulates pancreas and gall bladder to release digestive enzymes and bile to the small intestine

cholecystokinin (CCK):

stimulates pancreas and bile duct to secrete base into small intestine to neutralize stomach acid

secretin:

clears stomach and small intestine of undigested material (gets the colon rollin’)

motilin:

: inhibits gastric motility and secretion of acid

gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)

acts on the hypothalamus to increase hunger when stomach is empty

ghrelin:

regulates gastric acid secretion and promotes gastric mucosal growth

gastrin:

_____ plexus controls GI tract movements

myenteric plexus

_______ plexus regulates gland secretion

submucosal

intrinsic controls nerve plexuses (webs of nerves) near the GI tract initiate _________

short reflexes

short reflexes are mediated by local _____ plexuses (gut brain)

enteric

extrinsic controls of GI tract

long _____ arising within or outside the ______

reflexes GI tract

extrinsic controls of GI tract involve___ centers and extrinsic ________ nerves

CNS

growth hormone (GH) comes from the_________ gland

Anterior Pituitary

growth hormone (GH) Stimulusis is releasing hormones of
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

hypothalamus

growth hormone (GH ) Function is to stimulates growth of _____ organs in body; mobilizes _______ molecules, ______________ blood glucose level

all, food ,increasing

growth hormone (GH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes_______ & __________

giantism and acromegaly

melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) comes from ______________ Gland

Anterior Pituitary

melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of ___________

hypothalamus

melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Function is stimulating synthesis & dispersion of ___________ in the skin

melanin pigment

melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion results in the ______ of the skin

darkening

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH comes from the __________ )Gland

Anterior Pituitary

adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of _________

hypothalamus

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Function stimulates secretion of ______ hormones

adrenal cortex

adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion or hyposecretion of _______

adrenal cortex

follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) comes from __________ Gland

Anterior Pituitary

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)Stimulus is releasing hormones of ________

hypothalamus

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Function: males stimulates production and growth of ______ in seminiferous tubules of ____

females: stimulates development of follicles in ____ and secretion of____

sperm, testes

ovaries, estrogen

follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) Dysfunction/Disorders hyposecretion inhibits _________ and causes sterility

sexual development

luteinizing hormone (LH) comes from the ________ gland

Anterior Pituitary

luteinizing hormone (LH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of _______

hypothalamus

luteinizing hormone (LH) Function is males: stimulates secretion of________ by the_______ cells of the testes

females: stimulates the secretion of ________, stimulates maturation of _____________, triggers ovulation, and stimulates development of the _____

testosterone, interstitial

estrogen, ovarian follicle and ovum, corpus luteum

luteinizing hormone (LH) Dysfunction/Disorders hyposecretion inhibits _______ and causes sterility

sexual development

prolactin (PRL) comes from the _______ gland

Anterior Pituitary

prolactin (PRL) Stimulus is releasing hormones of

__________

hypothalamus

prolactin (PRL) Function is stimulates_____development during pregnancy and _____ development after pregnancy

breast , milk

prolactin (PRL) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes________ lactation in nonnursing women and in men; hyposecretion causes________ lactation in nursing women

inappropriate, insufficient

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) comes from the _____ gland

Anterior Pituitary

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of__________

hypothalamus

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Function is stimulates release of ______ hormone by the ____ gland

thyroid

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes _______; hyposecretion causes ________ in children and _______ in adults

hyperthyroidism, cretinis, myxedema

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) comes from the ________ gland

Posterior Pituitary

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulus is

hypothalamus

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) function is stimulates __________ by the kidneys

water retention

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Dysfunction/Disorder is hypersecretion results in abnormal ___________; hyposecretion causes _________

water retention, diabetes insipidus

oxytocin comes from the _______ gland

Posterior Pituitary

oxytocin stimulus is

hypothalamus

oxytocin function is stimulates _______ contractions at the end of pregnancy and the release of_____ into the ducts of the breast

uterine, milk

oxytocin Dysfunction/Disorder hypersecretion causes inappropriate ejection of ______ in lactating women; hyposecretion may cause prolonged or difficult____&_____

milk, labor and delivery

releasing hormones come from ______

Hypothalamus

releasing hormones Stimulus is s various ______ characteristics

blood

releasing hormones Function is stimulates ________ to release hormones

anterior pituitary

releasing hormones Dysfunction/Disorders is hypersecretion causes hypersecretion by
_______ =; hyposecretion causes hyposecretion by__________

anterior pituitar

inhibiting hormones comes from ____

Hypothalamus

inhibiting hormones Stimulus is s various_______ characteristics

blood

inhibiting hormones Function is inhibits ________ to stop releasing hormones

anterior pituitary

inhibiting hormones Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes hyposecretion by _______; hyposecretion causes hypersecretion by ____

anterior pituitary

thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) comes from the ____ gland

Thyroid

thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) stimulus is

pituitary TSH

thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) function is stimulates __________ activities of
cells

energy metabolic

thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) Dysfunction/Disorders is hypersecretion causes _____ _____; hyposecretion causes hypothyroidism, (pre-adult) ______, (adult) _______

hyperthyroidism,Graves disease, cretinism, myxedema, goiter

calcitonin comes from the ___ gland

Thyroid

calcitonin stimulus is

high blood calcium levels

calcitonin function is stimulates ________ using calcium in blood

bone formation

calcitonin Dysfunction/Disorders is hypersecretion can cause_______ hyposecretion can cause ______

hypocalcemia;, hypercalcemia

parathyroid hormone (PTH) comes from the ______ gland

parathyroid

parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulus is low _______ levels

blood calcium

parathyroid hormone (PTH) function is stimulates the breakdown of_____ and causes an increase in _____________

bone , blood calciumconcentrations

parathyroid hormone (PTH) Dysfunction/Disorder is hypersecretion can cause ______; hyposecretion can cause_________

hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia

thymosin and thymopoietin comes from ____ gland

Thymus

thymosin and thymopoietin stimulus is

immune system

thymosin and thymopoietin function is stimulate _________ to function against specific __________ in the immune response

T lymphocytes, pathogens

thymosin and thymopoietin Dysfunction/Disorder is multiple_______ dysfunctions

immune

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) comes from _______ gland

Adrenal Cortex

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) stimulus is

pituitary ACTH

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) function is regulate ____& _______ homeostasis or balance

electrolyte and fluid

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) dysfunction is hypersecretion causes increased ________ ;hyposecretion causes abnormal ________ or dehydration

water retention, water loss

cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids comes from ____________ gland

Adrenal Cortex

cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids stimulus is

pituitary ACTH

cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids function is stimulate_________, causing anincrease in blood glucose concentrations,and have anti-_____, anti-_______ and anti-_______ effects

gluconeogenesis, inflammatory, immunity, allergy

cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids dysfunction is hypersecretion causes _______; hyposecretion causes ________

Cushing’s Syndrome, Addison’s disease

sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) comes from _______ gland

Adrenal Cortex

sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) stimulus is

pituitary ACTH

sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) function is adrenal androgens stimulate_______ in females, but adrenal estrogens have little effects in males

sexual drive

sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) dysfunction is hypersecretion causes premature \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in females an
\_\_\_\_\_ of females; hyposecretion has no significant effect

sexual development , masculinization

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline comes from _____ gland

Adrenal Medulla

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline stimulus is

sympathetic nervous system

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline function is intensify and prolong the ______ response during stress

sympathetic

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline dysfunction is hypersecretion causes effects of ______; hyposecretion has no significant effect

stress

glucagon comes from ____ gland

Pancreatic Islets

glucagon stimulus is ____ blood glucose levels

low

glucagon function is stimulates__________, causing an

increase in blood glucose

glycogenolysis

glucagon dysfunction is

uncertain

insulin comes from ______ gland

Pancreatic Islets

insulin stimulus is high ______levels

blood glucose

insulin function is s promotes glucose entry into cells, causing a decrease in_______

blood glucose

insulin dysfunction is hypersecretion causes severe insulin _______ or _______; hyposecretion causes_________

shock or hypoglycemia, diabetes mellitus

Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… regulating cellular ________, along with _____ & ________ balance

metabolism water and electrolyte

Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… helping (along with the autonomic N.S.) to coordinate the ________, _______ & ___________ of nutrients

digestion, storage and circulation

Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… helping the body adapt to ______ situations

stressful

Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… regulating __________ production

red blood cell

Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through directing______ & _______

growth and development

Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through controlling _________

reproduction

hormone communication composed of glands that precisely secrete_________ (chemical messengers) into the________

hormones , bloodstream

hormones act on very specific receptors of _______ to change their activities and help to regulate _____________

target cells , metabolic processes

2 Main Types of Hormones

steroid (lipophilic):

amino acid (hydrophilic):

complex, ring-shaped lipid molecules; derived from cholesterol; enters nucleus of target cell to activate genes (direct gene action)

steroid (lipophilic):

involve larger molecules that bind to receptors on target cell membrane without entering cell; cause second messengers within cell to make functional changes

amino acid (hydrophilic):

within the cell initiate molecular reactions that change the physiological state of the cell.

Second messengers

true or false hormones are the first messengers

true

blood levels of hormones: are controlled by ________ feedback systems, vary only within a_____desirable range

negative , narrow

hormones are synthesized and released in response to _________, _______ & _________

humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli

hormones are continually excreted in _______ and broken down by certain________

urine , enzymes

: secretion of hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of ions and nutrients

humoral stimuli

nerve fibers stimulate hormone release

neural stimuli:

: release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs

hormonal stimuli

protein-based hormones travel freely in the

plasma

steroid hormones travel in the plasma carried by a

plasma protein

2 hormones released by the posterior pituitary are made

by the_________

hypothalamus

what 2 hormones released by the posterior pituitary

antidiuretic hormone

oxytocin

hormone (targets kidneys, blood vessels, etc.)

antidiuretic

___________ (targets smooth muscle of mammary glands, uterus, vas deferens; can also mimic ADH)

oxytocin

(Neurohypophysis

Posterior Pituitary

(Adenohypophysis)

Anterior Pituitary

synthesizes and releases several hormones into the blood

Anterior Pituitary

5 tropic hormones

Growth Hormone (GH)
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH

true or false tropic hormones regulated other endocrine hormones

true

true or false, prolactin is a tropic hormones

false

consists of T3 (triiodothyronine) & T4 (thyroxine)

Thyroid Hormone

Thyroid Hormone accelerates the________ of most tissues

metabolic rate

Thyroid Hormone increases __________-responsiveness to epinephrine and norepinephrine

target cell

Thyroid Hormone essential for normal______ as well as the development and function of the ________

growth nervous system

type 1 diabetes level of insulin secretion

none or almost none

type 1 diabetes typical onset age

childhood

type 1 diabetes % of diabetics

10-20%

type 1 diabetes basic defect

autoimmune destruction of B cells

type 1 diabetes treatment

insulin injections & exercise with diet

type 2 diabetes level of insulin secretion

normal or exceed normal

type 2 diabetes typical onset age

adulthood

type 2 diabetes % of diabetics

80-90%

type 2 diabetes basic defect

reduced sensitivity to insulin’s target cells

type 2 diabetes treatment

diet, weight loss

: results in 4 functional sperm cells

spermatogenesis

results in only 1 functional egg cell (rather than 4) due to disproportionate cytoplasmic division

oogenesis:

forms spermatids from spermatocytes

meiosis

forms sperm from spermatids (form tails and lose excess cytoplasm)

spermiogenesis

cells making up the walls of seminiferous tubules are in various stages of

cell division

sex hormones play roles in: the development and function of the

reproductive organs

sex hormones play roles in: ________behavior and drives

sexual

sex hormones play roles in: the _______ & ________ of many other organs and tissues

growth and development

in males sex hormones are secreted in constant___ quantities & _____ production is constant

low ,

“male hormones”, but small amounts in females

Androgens

cause secondary sex characteristics, bone and muscle maintenance

Androgens

testosterone produced in ____; androsterone synthesized in ____; others from adrenal glands

testes, liver

Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
↓ 
message sent to
↓ 
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
which secretes
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)    
-and-   LH (luteinizing hormone)

message sent to
↓
________

hypothalamus

anterior pituitary

testes

_____ cells increase sperm production and produce inhibin

Sertoli

______cells secrete testosterone, which also supports sperm production

Leydig

Rising levels of ______ & __________act in a negative feedback loop to decrease the amount of__________ releasing hormone produced by the hypothalamus.

result = _______ & _______ production
are at fairly constant, controlled levels

testosterone and inhibin , gonadotropin

hormone and sperm

in the fetal period, ______(ovarian stem cells) multiply by mitosis and store nutrients

oogonia

_________ oocytes begin meiosis but stall before completion

primary

one _________ oocyte is ovulated each month beginning with puberty

secondary

if penetrated by sperm the secondary oocyte completes __________, yielding:
one large ________ (the functional gamete)
a tiny second _______ (cast off as waste)

meiosis II, ovum, polar body

upon entry of sperm, the secondary oocyte:

completes ________ & casts out the second ________

meiosis II , polar body

the ovum nucleus swells, and the two nuclei approach each other when fully swollen, the two nuclei are called ___________

pronuclei

– when the pronuclei come together

fertilization

sperm fertilizes oocyte in the ______ to form a _____

oviduct, zygote

fertilization occurs ___ days before the end of the menstrual cycle

oocyte survives about 1 day following ______

ovulation

Contrary to most sources, sperm can survive __ days in the female!

zona pellucida: egg layer gelatinous, noncellular
functions:

lock & key receptor site for _____
prevents _________
encases early ______cells

spem, polyspermy, cleavage

: about 3000 of these diploid cells surround the egg

corona radiata cells

: destroys corona radiata (many sperm needed to do this)

hyaluronidase

penetrates zona pellucida only in a successful sperm cell

acrosin:

in the ovarian cycle

_______ encases egg;

____________) is a blood clot that fills the follicle pit after ovulation;

_______ replaces CH and produces hormones;

___________ is a white scar left when corpus luteum cells die

ovary: follicle

corpus hemorrhagicum (CH

corpus luteum

corpus albicans

cause secondary sex characteristics, menstrual cycling, bone and muscle maintenance, blood clotting, fat storage

Estrogens

“female hormones”, but males have small amounts

Estrogens

levels decreased after menopause

Estrogens

Progesterone involved in _____ cycle

menstrual

Progesterone is a _____hormone

female

prepares for and maintains pregnancy; prevents uterine contractions,

Progesterone

sudden drop during pregnancy causes miscarriage

Progesterone

Sex Hormones are Secreted in a 4 step Cycles

egg maturation within a follicle

preparation of the endometrium for egg implantation

ovulation

implantation of fertilized egg (pregnancy)
-OR-
menstruation begins (no pregnancy)

Understand that lung volumes and capacities can be measured to examine respiratory health, and these measurements are collectively called

“spirometry.”

Hormonal Control of the Female Reproductive System

hypothalamus
secretes \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hormone (GnRH)
↓ 
message sent to
↓ 
anterior pituitary
which secretes
\_\_\_\_\_\_ &amp;\_\_\_\_ hormone)   
message sent to
↓ 
ovaries / endometrium

gonadotropin releasing

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)    
and    LH (luteinizing

ovarian \_\_\_\_\_ matures, which
contains an egg, 
and endometrium
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
↓
ovaries secrete \_\_\_\_
rising estrogen levels 
trigger
↓  
 mid-cycle surge in FSH and LH
triggers\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

follicle, thickens

estrogen

ovulation

Days____ of menstrual cycle all hormones low; blood & tissue discharged from uterus

Days 1-7

Days____ of menstrual cycle estrogen levels increase; follicle and uterine lining develop

Days 7-14

Days____ of menstrual cycle LH peaks & causes ovulation; estrogen is in decline

Day 14

Days____ of menstrual cycle LH declines; estrogen & progesterone increase

Days 14-21

Days____ of menstrual cycle all hormones decline (PMS week!!!)

Days 21-28:

O2 binds to hemoglobin when: temperature is ____

CO2 levels are___

cool, low

What is the average number of nephrons per kidney?

1 million

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lecture exam 4 Flashcards

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