lecture exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
Three different pressures are important to breathing
A
atmospheric pressure
intrapulmonary pressure (pressure in the alveoli)
intrapleural pressure (pressure in the pleural cavity between the lung and the thoracic wall)
2
Q
atmospheric pressure is ______ mmHg
A
760
3
Q
intrapulmonary pressure is the pressure in the ______
A
alveoli
4
Q
intrapleural pressure pressure in the _______ between the lung and the thoracic wall
A
pleural cavity
5
Q
intrapleural pressure should always be __ mmHg less than intrapulmonary pressure
A
4
6
Q
sucking pressure that holds lungs open or glued to the walls of the chest cavity
A
intrapleural pressure
7
Q
the flow of air along a pressure gradient is dependent upon the_________ of the airways
A
resistance
8
Q
parasympathetic stimulation _______ resistance of the smooth muscle of the airways:
A
increases
9
Q
parasympathetic contraction in the lungs =
A
bronchoconstriction
10
Q
sympathetic stimulation _______ resistance of the smooth muscle of the airways:
A
decreases
11
Q
the flow of air along a _________ is dependent upon the resistance of the airways
A
pressure gradient
12
Q
parasympathetic stimulation increases resistance of the _________ of the airways:
A
smooth muscle
13
Q
sympathetic stimulation relaxation in the lungs =
A
bronchodilation
14
Q
diseases such as _________, ___________ & ________ can also increase resistance in the airway
A
asthma, chronic bronchitis and obstructive emphysema
15
Q
COPD stands for
A
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
16
Q
how stretchable the lungs are as they fill with air
A
Compliance:
17
Q
diseases such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and obstructive emphysema can also increase ________
A
resistance
18
Q
COPD is a combination or _________ & ___________
A
chronic bronchitis + obstructive emphysema
19
Q
airway surface tension is decreased by the secretion of ____________ by alveolar cells
A
pulmonary surfactant
20
Q
degree of compliance in the lungs is due to _____ of connective tissue in the lung
A
elasticity
21
Q
degree of lung compliance is due to _______ tension
A
surface tension
22
Q
degree of lung compliance is due to __________ tension caused by water within the alveoli
A
alveolar surface tension
23
Q
The concentrations of O2 and CO2 are measured as_______
A
partial pressures.
24
Q
O2 enters and CO2 leaves the blood along________________
A
partial pressure gradients
25
degree of lung compliance is due to:elasticity of ________ in the lung
connective tissue
26
degree of lung compliance is due to alveolar surface tension caused by water within the _______
alveoli
27
The concentrations of____ & __ are measured as partial pressures
O2 and CO2
28
_____ enters and ___ leaves the blood along partial pressure gradients
O2 enters and CO2 leaves
29
although carbon dioxide has a lower partial pressure gradient it is __ times more soluble in______ than oxygen
20, plasma
30
carbon dioxide diffuses in equal amounts with _______
oxygen
31
although carbon dioxide has a lower partial pressure gradient it is 20 times more soluble in ________ than _______
plasma than oxygen
32
most oxygen is bound to hemoglobin as ___________ and small amounts dissolve in the ______
oxyhemoglobin, plasma
33
gas transport is transport of ____ in the blood
O2
34
although carbon dioxide has a lower partial pressure gradient it is 20 times more _______ in plasma than oxygen
soluble
35
hemoglobin releases O2 or has CO2 bind to it when temperature is ____ & CO2 levels are _____
warm, high
36
Changes in the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 means
(how well O2 sticks to hemoglobin)
37
carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three forms
dissolved in ____
chemically bound to_____
__________ ion in plasma
dissolved in plasma
chemically bound to hemoglobin
bicarbonate ion in plasma
38
CO2 transport dissolved in plasma:_____%
7-10
39
CO2 transport chemically bound to hemoglobin: _____% is carried in RBCs as _____________
20-23, carbaminohemoglobin
40
CO2 transport bicarbonate ion in plasma:___% is transported as _____________ (HCO3–)
70, bicarbonate ion
41
CO2 acts as an important__________ regulator in the blood
pH regulator
42
too much CO2 (hypercapnia) = blood becomes more______
acidic
43
too much CO2 is called
hypercapnia
44
too little CO2 (hypocapnia) = blood becomes more_____
basic
45
pH in respiratory system below 7.35
(respiratory acidosis)
46
pH in respiratory system above 7.45
(respiratory alkalosis)
47
too little CO2 is called
hypocapnia
48
respiration is regulated by the body in PO2 and PCO2 are monitored by ________ in the medulla oblongata, the carotid arteries and the aorta
chemoreceptors
49
PO2 and PCO2 are monitored by chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, the________ & _________
carotid arteries and the aorta
50
Arterial PCO2 plays the primary role in regulating ___________
minute by minute respiration
51
an increase in arterial__ concentration can trigger an increase in _________ even if the H+ is not from carbonic acid some other causes are ___ & fat _______
H+, respiration
protein n fat metabolism
52
Increased respiration due to low oxygen levels is called
hypoxic drive.
53
arterial PO2 (this is secondary in importance to PCO2) must fall by more than____% to trigger an _______ in respiration
40, increase
54
an increase in arterial H+ concentration can trigger an _____ in respiration even if the H+ is not from ______
increase, carbonic acid
55
P(partial pressure) CO2 increases H+ concentration _______
increases
56
P(partial pressure) CO2 increase pH __________
decreases
57
P(partial pressure) CO2 increase breathing rate _______
increases
58
P(partial pressure) CO2 decreases H+ concentration _____
decreases
59
P(partial pressure) CO2 decreases pH _____
increases
60
P(partial pressure) CO2 decreases breathing rate _____
decreases
61
central chemoreceptors in the brainstem only detect ___ and not ___
CO2 and not O2
62
peripherial chemoreceptors detect_____&______ (aorta, carotid sinus)
CO2 and O2
63
regardless of the source, any additional acid _______ and _______ breathing
increases and changes
64
how deep your breath is
magnitude
65
_________ in the brainstem only detect CO2 and not O2
central chemoreceptors
66
urine should be ______ only
trash
67
________ detect CO2 and O2 (aorta, carotid sinus)
peripherial chemoreceptors
68
waste removal from sterile body cells
excretion
69
fenestrated capillary bed have ______ like swiss cheese
holes
70
kidney tubules are __ cell thick
1
71
glomerular capillaries are about __ mmHg
55
72
any fluid squeezed out of the blood is in the __________
bowmans capsule
73
_______ & ________ are excretion of urinary system
urine and sweat
74
______ of the blood is filtered by kidney
plasma
75
_______ activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells)
increased activity
76
__________ activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells)
decreased activity
77
increased activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ rate to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant
increases
78
decreased activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ rate to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant
decrease
79
the urinary system filters ___ liters of blood daily, removing ____, ______ wastes, excess______ etc.
200, toxins, metabolic, ions
80
increased activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ magnitude to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant
increases
81
decreased activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) ______ magnitude to keep O2 and CO2 levels constant
decrease
82
filters 200 liters of blood daily, removing toxins, metabolic wastes, excess ions, etc.
the urinary system
83
increased activity (increased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) increase magnitude and rate to keep _____ & _____ levels constant
O2 and CO2 levels constant
84
decreased activity (decreased cellular respiration within skeletal muscle cells) decreasd rate and magnitude to keep ______& _______ levels constant
O2 and CO2
85
the urinary system regulates ______ (BP) and ______ of the blood
volume, chemical makeup
86
regulates volume (BP) and chemical makeup of the blood
the urinary system
87
maintains the proper balance between water and salts, and acids and bases
the urinary system
88
production of____ to help increase blood pressure and erythropoietin to stimulate RBC production
renin
89
_______ during prolonged fasting is another renal function
gluconeogenesis
90
activation of vitamin __ is another important renal function
D
91
the urinary system maintains the proper balance between______& ______, ______&________
water and salts, and acids and bases
92
important system for excretion
the urinary system
93
production of renin to help increase________& ________ to stimulate RBC production
blood pressure and erythropoietin
94
production of renin to help increase blood pressure and erythropoietin to stimulate_________
RBC production
95
every nephron has ___ fenestrated capillary beds
two
96
every nephron has two fenestrated capillary beds, what are they?
glomerulus, peritubular capillaries
97
each glomerulus capillary bed is fed by an _______ arteriole drained by an ________ arteriole
afferent, efferent
98
each glomerulus is ________ by an efferent arteriole
drained
99
is blood pressure in the glomerulus high?
yes
100
each glomerulus is____ by an afferent arteriole
fed
101
blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because ________ are high-resistance vessels
arterioles
102
each ________ is fed by an afferent arteriole
glomerulus
103
blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because_______ arterioles have_______ diameters than ______ arterioles
afferent, larger, efferent
104
each glomerulus is drained by an ________ arteriole
efferent
105
blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because afferent arterioles have larger _______ than efferent arteriole
diameters
106
each________ is drained by an efferent arteriole
glomerulus
107
blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because arterioles are ____________ vessels
high-resistance
108
_________&______ are forced out of the blood throughout the entire length of the glomerulus
fluids and solutes
109
afferent and efferent arterioles offer______ resistance to blood flow
high
110
_____ declines from ~95mm Hg in renal arteries to ~8 mm Hg in renal veins
blood pressure
111
: filtration of blood plasma by the glomerular capillaries
glomerular filtration
112
fluids and solutes are forced out of the_______ throughout the entire length of the glomerulus
blood
113
afferent and efferent arterioles offer high resistance to _________
blood flow
114
blood pressure declines from ____mm Hg in renal arteries to____ mm Hg in renal veins
~95, ~8
115
filtrate is similar to_______ but lacks large______ (albumin maintains osmotic pressure of the blood)
blood plasma, proteins
116
fluids and solutes are forced out of the blood throughout the entire length of the _________
glomerulus
117
afferent and efferent _______ offer high resistance to blood flow
arterioles
118
blood pressure declines from ~95mm Hg in _______ to ~8 mm Hg in ______
renal arteries, renal veins
119
______ is similar to blood plasma but lacks large proteins (albumin maintains osmotic pressure of the blood)
filtrate
120
approximately ______% of the plasma passes through the filtration membrane and into the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)
20
121
approximately___% of the plasma, blood cells and platelets remain in the glomerular capillaries and circulate through the efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries
80
122
changes in glomerular filtration rate (filtrate formed per minute) normally result from changes in__________
glomerular blood pressure
123
approximately 20% of the _______passes through the filtration membrane and into the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)
plasma
124
approximately 80% of the _______, _______ & __________ remain in the glomerular capillaries and circulate through the efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries
plasma, blood cells and platelets
125
changes in ______________ (filtrate formed per minute) normally result from changes in glomerular blood pressure
glomerular filtration rate
126
increased glomerular BP leads to ________ Glomerular Filtration Rate
increased
127
approximately 20% of the plasma passes through the filtration membrane and into the____________
glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)
128
approximately 80% of the plasma, blood cells and platelets remain in the __________ and circulate through the efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries
glomerular capillaries
129
_______ glomerular BP leads to increased Glomerular Filtration Rate
increased
130
GFR is adjusted by the ______________ to ensure proper urine chemistry and volume (which corresponds to proper blood chemistry and volume)
juxtaglomerular apparatus
131
approximately 20% of the plasma passes through the ____________ and into the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule)
filtration membrane
132
approximately 80% of the plasma, blood cells and platelets remain in the glomerular capillaries and circulate through the___________ & _____________
efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries
133
GFR is adjusted by the juxtaglomerular apparatus to ensure proper ____________& _________(which corresponds to proper blood chemistry and volume)
urine chemistry and volume
134
decreased glomerular BP leads to ________ Glomerular Filtration Rate
decreased
135
______ cells are enlarged, smooth muscle cells
granular
136
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA) consists of ________ cells , ________ cells & __________ cells
granular cells, macula densa cells, mesangial cells
137
granular cells have______ granules containing______
secretory , renin
138
__________ cells are tall, closely packed distal tubule cells
macula densa
139
mesangial cells: have_________&_________ properties
phagocytic and contractile
140
granular cells act as ________ to detect BP
mechanoreceptors
141
_________ cells influence capillary filtration
mesangial cells
142
_______ cells lie adjacent to granular cells
macula densa
143
if the GFR is too high needed substances (nutrients, necessary ions, etc.) cannot be _________ quickly enough and are lost in the _____
reabsorbed, urine
144
three mechanisms control the GFR
renal ___________ (intrinsic system)
___________ controls
_______________ mechanism (the renin-angiotensin system
renal autoregulation (intrinsic system)
neural controls
hormonal mechanism (the renin-angiotensin system
145
macula densa cells function as __________ or ___________ for urine
chemoreceptors or osmoreceptors
146
if the GFR is too low everything is ________ including wastes that are normally disposed of through the _______
reabsorbed, urine
147
under normal conditions, ________________ maintains a nearly constant glomerular filtration rate
renal autoregulation
148
macula densa cells function as chemoreceptors or osmoreceptors for ______
urine
149
autoregulation entails two types of control
flow-dependent tubuloglomerular feedback:
myogenic
150
under normal conditions, renal autoregulation maintains a nearly constant________________
glomerular filtration rate
151
type of autoregulation for GFR : responds to changes in pressure (baroreceptors) in the renal blood vessels
myogenic
152
juxtaglomerular apparatus senses chemistry changes in the filtrate that is transforming into urine
flow-dependent tubuloglomerular feedback:
153
the ___________ that regulates blood pressure can influence filtration rate
baroreceptor reflex
154
when the _________ nervous system is active renal blood vessels are maximally dilated to increase filtration
parasympathetic
155
the sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the ____________ mechanism
renin-angiotensin
156
the baroreceptor reflex that ___________ can influence filtration rate
regulates blood pressure
157
when the parasympahetic nervous system is active renal blood vessels are maximally dilated to___________
increase filtration
158
when the parasympathetic nervous system is active _________ mechanisms prevail
autoregulation
159
the baroreceptor reflex that regulates blood pressure can influence __________
filtration rate
160
when theparasympathetic nervous system is active renal blood vessels are _________ to increase filtration
maximally dilated
161
increased EDV causes the heart to release _________ (ANP) to increase GFR
atrial natriuretic peptide
162
under stress ____________& ______________ are released by the adrenal medulla via the sympathetic nervous system
epinephrine and norepinephrine
163
increased EDV causes the heart to release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) to_______ GFR
increase
164
under stress afferent arterioles _______ and filtration is_______
constrict, inhibited
165
under stress epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the _________ via the sympathetic nervous system
adrenal medulla
166
the___________ nervous system also stimulates the renin-angiotensin mechanism
sympathetic,
167
increased EDV causes the heart to release____________ to ________ GFR
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), increase
168
the sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the ____________
renin-angiotensin mechanism
169
increased ______ causes the heart to release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) to increase____
EDV, GFR
170
vasodilator produced by the vascular endothelium
nitric oxide:
171
: a powerful vasoconstrictor secreted by tubule cells
endothelin
172
vasoconstrictor of renal vasculature
adenosine:
173
vasodilators produced in response to sympathetic stimulation and angiotensin II
prostaglandins
174
prostaglandins are thought to prevent _____ damage when peripheral resistance is ______
renal, increased
175
prostaglandins vasodilators produced in response to _____________ stimulation and ________
sympathetic, angiotensin II
176
prostaglandin types
PGE2 and PGI2
nitric oxide
adenosine:
endothelin
177
are thought to prevent renal damage when peripheral resistance is increased
prostaglandins
178
tubular reabsorption: selective body reabsorption of substances such as______, _______ & ________ etc., by the ___________ back to the blood
water, amino acids, glucose, kidney tubule
179
water is reabsorbed by _______; all other substances reabsorbed by________, ______ or _________ transport
osmosis, diffusion, passive or active transport
180
a transepithelial process whereby most tubule contents are returned to the blood
tubular reabsorption:
181
selective body reabsorption of substances such as water, amino acids, glucose, etc., by the kidney tubule back to the blood
tubular reabsorption:
182
in tubular reabsorption transported substances move through _____ membranes
three
183
tubular reabsorption:__________&________ membranes of tubule cells
luminal and basolateral
184
tubular reabsorption: a ________ process whereby most tubule contents are returned to the ______
transepithelial, blood
185
tubular reabsorption: _______& ________capillaries
endothelium of peritubular
186
only Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and some Na+ are reabsorbed via ________ pathways through _______
paracellular, tight junctions
187
in tubular reabsorption most reabsorption takes place in the ________
proximal tubule
188
in tubular reabsorption all organic________ are reabsorbed
nutrients
189
in tubular reabsorption water and ion reabsorption is _________ controlled
hormonally
190
exists for nearly every substance that is actively reabsorbed
a transport maximum (Tm):
191
in a transport maximum when the specific__________ for that substance are saturated in tubules, excess of that substance is____________
protein carriers, excreted in the urine
192
Na+ is not reabsorbed in the_________ limb of the loop of Henle
descending
193
of the total energy spent by kidneys,____% is used for Na+ transport
80
194
______ follows reabsorbed sodium by osmosis, which has a main effect on__________&_______________
water, blood volume and blood pressure
195
an active____________ pump in ________ membrane is essential for Na+ reabsorption
Na+ - K+ ATPase, basolateral
196
Na+ is actively pumped out of the ______ limb into the interstitial fluid, making it ____________
ascending, hypertonic
197
water is reabsorbed through ______ from the_______ limb
osmosis, descending
198
tubular secretion: rapid removal of_____ (i.e., ammonia, H+ and K+ ions) from blood plasma to the distal tubule for removal through the _______
toxins, urine
199
is a byproduct of protein processing; the liver detoxifies it to form urea, which is filtered out by the kidney
ammonia (NH3)
200
___________ liters excreated per day of urine
0.6–2.5
201
: rapid removal of toxins (i.e., ammonia, H+ and K+ ions) from blood plasma to the distal tubule for removal through the urine
tubular secretion
202
ammonia (NH3) is a byproduct of _____________; the liver detoxifies it to form ______, which is filtered out by the kidney
protein processing, urea
203
give urine the dark amber color
urochrome pigment
204
average pH of urine
5.5-6.5
205
urine is composed of _____,____,____ &_____; very small amounts of _____
water, urea, salts & minerals, body cells
206
cortical nephrons ___% of nephrons
85
207
nephrons produce dilute urine
cortical nephrons
208
what type of nephrons have loops of Henle that deeply invade the medulla
juxtamedullary nephrons:
209
the number of solute particles dissolved in 1L of water
osmolality
210
cortical nephrons located in the ______
cortex
211
what kind of nephrons produce concentrated urine to prevent blood dehydration
juxtamedullary nephrons:
212
osmolality reflects the solution’s ability to cause _________
osmosis
213
body fluids are measured in _____
milliosmols (mOsm)
214
the kidneys keep the solute load of body fluids constant at about ______mOsm accomplished by the____________
300, countercurrent mechanism
215
interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle (countercurrent multiplier) and the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels (countercurrent exchanger)
Countercurrent Mechanism
216
the solute concentration in the loop of Henle ranges from ______ mOsm to______ mOsm
300, 1200
217
interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle
(countercurrent multiplier
218
dissipation of the medullary osmotic gradient is prevented because the blood in the ______ equilibrates with the ______________
vasa recta, interstitial fluid
219
the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels
(countercurrent exchanger)
220
_______ of the medullary osmotic gradient is prevented because the blood in the vasa recta _________ with the interstitial fluid
dissipation, equilibrates
221
is the descending loop of Henle permeable or impermeable to solutes
impermeable
222
_______ in the deep medullary regions are permeable to urea
collecting ducts
223
is the descending loop of Henle permeable or impermeable to water
permeable to water
224
collecting ducts in the deep medullary regions are permeable to ______
urea
225
is the ascending loop of Henle is permeable or impermeable to solutes
permeable
226
the ______ is a countercurrent exchanger
vasa recta
227
is the ascending loop of Henle permeable or impermeable to water
impermeable
228
the vasa recta is a countercurrent exchanger that maintains the _______ & delivers______ to the cells in the area
osmotic gradient, blood
229
filtrate is diluted in the ________ loop of Henle
ascending
230
is created by allowing this filtrate to continue into the renal pelvis
dilute urine
231
filtrate is _______ in the ascending loop of Henle
diluted
232
in dilute urine collecting ducts remain_________ to water; no further water reabsorption occurs
impermeable
233
dilute urine is created by allowing this filtrate to continue into the ________ as long as ___________ is not being secreted
renal pelvis, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
234
in dilute urine_______&_______can be removed by active and passive mechanisms
sodium and selected ions
235
urine osmolality can be as low as____ mOsm (one-sixth that of _______)
50, plasma
236
_________ inhibits diuresis
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
237
in the presence of ADH, up to__% of the water in filtrate is reabsorbed
99
238
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) inhibits diuresis this equalizes the ______of the filtrate and the________
osmolality, interstitial fluid
239
ADH-dependent water reabsorption is called
facultative water reabsorption
240
___________ is the signal to produce concentrated urine
ADH
241
the kidneys’ ability to respond depends upon the
high medullary osmotic gradient
242
Aldosterone from the _________causes_____ reabsorption and corresponding______reabsorption, which increases________ and results in ____________urine.
adrenal glands, Na+, water, blood pressure, concentrated (darker)
243
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, a.k.a. vasopressin) from the ___________________ acts on the _______ to cause _______ reabsorption* and prevent______dehydration, resulting in ________ urine.
pituitary gland neurohypophysis, collecting duct, water, blood, concentrated
244
_______ inhibits the release of ADH, causing excessive urination and dehydration.
Alcohol
245
top 6 reasons for renal failure
___________ from waste product retention
metabolic _________ (can’t secrete enough H+)
___________ imbalances
loss of ________ proteins – leads to edema of tissues
inability to vary _________________; body fluids can become hypo- or hypertonic
_______________ inadequate erythropoietin production
toxicity from waste product retention
metabolic acidosis (can’t secrete enough H+)
electrolyte imbalances
loss of plasma proteins – leads to edema of tissues
inability to vary urine concentration; body fluids can become hypo- or hypertonic
anemia: inadequate erythropoietin production
246
does too much sodium increase or decrease blood pressure
increase
247
anemia from renal failure is due to inadequate __________ production
inadequate erythropoietin production
248
in renal failure loss of plasma proteins – leads to
edema of tissues
249
can lung tissue be regenerated
no
250
4 steps of respiration
ventilation
external respiration
transport of o2 and CO2
internal respiration
251
increase in blood volume means a _____ in blood pressure an example would be during _____
decrease, inhalation
252
a decrease in blood volume results in a ____ of blood pressure an example would be during ________
increase, exhalation
253
air moves from area of ___ pressure to area of ___ pressure
high, low
254
does normal exhalation involve contracting muscles
no
255
does forced exhalation involve contracting muscles
internal intercostals and abdominal
256
atmospheric pressure is __ mmHg
760
257
amount of air forcefully exhaled after a forceful inhalation
vital capacity
258
amount of air forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation
expiratory reserve volume
259
amount of air forcefully inhaled after a tidal volume inhalation
inspiratory reserve volume
260
amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing
tidal volume
261
__________ pressure should always be 4mmHg less than _______ pressure
intrapleural, intrapulmonary
262
sucking pressure that holds lungs open like they are glued to chest cavity
intrapleural pressure
263
P stands for
partial pressure
264
when CO2 increases H+ concentration _________,
| pH __________ & breathing _________
increases, decreases, increases
265
chemoreceptors in the brainstem that only detect CO2
central chemoreceptors
266
chemoreceptors that detect CO2 & O2 (aorta, carotid arteries)
peripheral chemoreceptors
267
when CO2 decreases H+ concentration _________,
| pH __________ & breathing _________
decreases, increases, decreases
268
any additional acid ______ breathing
increases
269
waste removal from sterile body cells
excretion
270
holes in capillary bed that look like swiss cheese
fenestrated capillary bed
271
kidney tubules are __ cells thick
1
272
what is larger an afferent or efferent arteriole
afferent
273
glomerular capillaries are about ___ mmHg
5
274
true or false constriction on either side of the glomerular capillaries will make fluid waste product come out of blood
true
275
any fluid squeezed out of the blood collects in the _____
bowmans capsule
276
excretion of the urinary system
urine and sweat
277
only ____ of the blood is filtered in the kidney
plasma
278
glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure is ___ mmHg
55
279
blood colloid osmotic pressure is ___ mmHg
30
280
capsular hydrostatic pressure is __ mmHg
15
281
net filtration pressure is __________ minus ___________ minus __________ to equal around __ mmHg
glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure,
blood colloid osmotic pressure,
capsular hydrostatic pressure,
10
282
macula densa measure _____ of blood
wetness
283
true or false there is a juxtaglomerular apparatus on every nephron
true
284
natri refers to
sodium
285
if there is not enough blood for every nephron _____, ________ & ________ are used for vasoconstriction/ dialation to alternate blood to nephrons
nitric oxide, adenosine, endothelin
286
movement from the filtrate (urine) to the blood
reabsorption
287
movement from the blood the filtrate (urine)
secretion
288
movement of ____ drives the movement of everything
sodium
289
15% of nephrons are _________
juxtamedullary
290
average pH of urine
6
291
nephron that specialize in producing healthy urine
cortical
292
dryness
osmolarity
293
nephron that specialize in making concentrated urine
juxtamedullary
294
high osmolarity numbers are
dry
295
is the inside of the kidney super wet or dry
dry
296
sensible
can be measured
297
insensible
can not be measured
298
facultative
excess water loss (optional)
299
obligatory
necessary water loss
300
if you need to produce concentrated urine the inside of the kidney needs to be concentrated by ADH opening ______ in the ________
aquaporins and collecting ducts
301
phosphoric acid
proteins
302
lactic acid
carbs
303
keto acid
lipids
304
uric acid
nucleic acid
305
true or false water intake must equal water output
true
306
increases in _______________ (concentration) trigger hypothalamic thirst center and release of antidiuretic hormone
plasma osmolality
307
water is lost through ___________ ,______ ,_________ & _______
respiration, sweating, defecation and urination
308
water gains absorption from_________ system
digestive system
309
increases in plasma osmolality (concentration) trigger _______________ center and release of _________
hypothalamic thirst, antidiuretic hormone
310
water gains metabolism (water as a byproduct during_________
electron transport chain)
311
water losses urine minimum _____ ml urine/day)
500
312
water losses evaporation through________ system
respiratory
313
water losses evaporation through _______, __________ & ______
skin
sweat
feces
314
in dehydration water loss exceeds water intake and the body is in _________ (______ BP and cells _______)
negative fluid balance, decrease BP and cells shrin
315
renal insufficiency or an extraordinary amount of water ingested quickly can lead to cellular overhydration, or water intoxication ( BP and cells swell/burst)
hypotonic hydration
316
water loss exceeds water intake and the body is in negative fluid balance (decrease BP and cells shrink)
dehydration
317
in hypotonic hydration renal insufficiency or an extraordinary amount of water ingested quickly can lead to ____________ or __________ (_______ BP and cells ________)
cellular overhydration, or water intoxication
increased, swell/burst
318
atypical accumulation of interstitial fluid, leading to swelling
edema (a.k.a. 3rd spacing
319
3 effects of disruption in solute concentration:
1) ________ shrinking or swelling of cells, and edema
2) changes in__________ and excitability of nerves and all muscles
3) _________ concentration fluctuation: acid /base balance
1) tonicity: shrinking or swelling of cells, and edema
2) changes in membrane potential and excitability of nerves and all muscles
3) H+ concentration fluctuation: acid /base balance
320
edema (a.k.a.
3rd spacing
321
pH of arterial blood is
7.4
322
edema (a.k.a. 3rd spacing): atypical accumulation of ________, leading to_______
interstitial fluid, swelling
323
pH of venous blood and interstitial fluid is
7.35
324
pH of intracellular fluid is
7.0
325
arterial blood pH falls below 7.35
acidosis or acidemia =
326
arterial blood pH is above 7.45
alkalosis or alkalemia =
327
death occurs if blood pH goes outside the range of______ for more than a few seconds
6.8-8.0
328
H+ are continually being added to the body fluids because of_________ formation from CO2
carbonic acid
329
: abnormal increase in CO2
respiratory acidosis
330
H+ are continually being added to the body fluids because of digestion of______, especially _______
food, proteins
331
abnormal decrease in CO2
respiratory alkalosis:
332
H+ are continually being added to the body fluids because of acids produced during ________, like_______ acid during______
metabolism, lactic, heavy exercise
333
metabolic acidosis or alkalosis : abnormal decrease in HCO3-
metabolic acidosis
334
respiratory acidosis or alkalosis respiratory disease (reduced gas exchange)
respiratory acidosis
335
metabolic acidosis or alkalosis : abnormal increase in HCO3-
metabolic alkalosis
336
respiratory acidosis or alkalosis depression of the respiratory center by drugs or disease
respiratory acidosis
337
respiratory acidosis or alkalosis hyperventilation caused by fever, anxiety or aspirin poisoning
respiratory alkalosis
338
respiratory acidosis or alkalosis nerve or muscle disorder that reduces respiratory muscle ability
respiratory acidosis
339
metabolic acidosis or alkalosis diarrhea – loss of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
metabolic acidosis
340
metabolic acidosis or alkalosis using baking soda (antacids) to treat heartburn and stomach irritation
metabolic alkalosis
341
rapid fat catabolism due to diabetes mellitus, starvation, or Atkin’s diet (keto acidosis)
metabolic acidosis
342
vomiting – loss of gastric acids
metabolic alkalosis
343
strenuous exercise (lactic acid buildup)
metabolic acidosis
344
due to effects of acid/base imbalances: changes in excitability of _____&_____(Na+ and K+ on the wrong sides of cell membranes)
nerves and all muscles
345
metabolic acidosis or alkalosis alcohol consumption
metabolic acidosis
346
Possible effects of acid/base imbalances _________ activity changes
enzyme
347
metabolic acidosis or alkalosis kidney failure
metabolic acidosis
348
if excessive__ is secreted by the kidneys, excessive___ is retained
H+ , K+
349
3 Defense against acid-base fluctuations
chemical buffers,
respiration,
removal of acid/base by the kidney (hours)
350
molecules that can “sponge up” excess H+ until they can be removed from the body
chemical buffers (seconds)
351
3 types of chemical buffers
bicarbonate buffer system (extracellular fluids)
- phosphate buffer system (intracellular fluids and urine)
- protein buffer system (all over the body)
352
chemical buffers that deal with extracellular fluid
bicarbonate buffer system
353
chemical buffers that work all over the body
-phosphate buffer system
354
chemical buffers that deal with the intracellular fluids and urine
phosphate buffer system
355
The digestive system does four basic things:
moves food along the_________________ and mixes it (motility)
secretes_________fluids
________ food
absorbs _________ and moves them into the _________
moves food along the alimentary canal and mixes it (motility)
secretes digestive fluids
digests food
absorbs nutrients and moves them into the blood stream
356
waves of smooth muscle contraction propel food forward
peristalsis
357
(small intestine only): mixes with ring-like contractions
segmentation
358
deglutition
swallowing
359
emesis
= vomiting
360
mass movement
= bowel movement
361
defecation
= elimination
362
food can be digested what 2 ways
chemically
mechanically
363
type of digestion where food is broken into small pieces
mechanically –
364
type of chemical digestion carbohydrates
monosaccharides
365
type of chemical digestion proteins
amino acids
366
type of chemical digestion lipids
fatty acids + glycerol (monoglyceride)
367
type of chemical digestion nucleic acids
nucleotides
368
Food is chewed and mixed with ______
saliva.
369
Chewing breaks food into small pieces and increases __________ for chemical digestion.
surface area
370
saliva contains the enzyme ____________ that breaks down carbohydrates into __________
salivary amylase, disaccharides
371
saliva rinses away food particles and _________ pH
buffers
372
swallowed food is propelled through the _________ by _________ waves, and then enters the _______
esophagus , peristaltic, stomach
373
peristaltic waves reaching the stomach cause the ________________(cardiac) sphincter to open the ___________
gastroesophageal, stomach
374
The stomach is the beginning of the ________
GI tract
375
the stomach _______ as it is filled with the bolus
expands
376
the stomach will release ______ into the small intestine a little at a time
chyme
377
the rate of stomach emptying depends on the the _____ of food, __________ food there is, and _________ the food is
type, how much, how wet
378
mechanically churns the bolus and mixes it with the stomach secretions:
The stomach
379
important for the absorption of vitamin B12
Intrinsic Factor:
380
The stomach _______________ churns the bolus and mixes it with the stomach secretions:
mechanically
381
lubrication and protection
alkaline mucus:
382
) – helps to break large food particles into smaller ones
HCl (from parietal cells
383
The stomach mechanically churns the bolus and mixes it with the _________
stomach secretions:
384
pepsinogen (from chief cells) + HCl =
pepsin (active protein digesting enzyme)
385
in the small intestine _____ leaves stomach and enters duodenum;
chyme ,
386
3 Secretions added to the chyme through the hepatopancreatic duct
enzymes
alkaline solution
bile (liver):
387
bile is produced in
liver)
388
alkaline solution is found in
(pancreas and bile duct):
389
secretions from the ________& __________ are added to the chyme in the duodenum through the _____________& _______________
pancreas and liver
hepatopancreatic duct and ampulla
390
salty lipid that emulsifies fats (breaks them into small droplets with more surface area)
bile (liver)
391
in the small intestine chyme leaves stomach and enters _______;
duodenum
392
neutralizes acidic pH
alkaline solution (pancreas and bile duct):
393
enzymes are released in an inactive form and are activated in the duodenum to perform ______
hydrolysis
394
examples of hydrolysis
pancreatic amylase (carbs to disaccharides)
lipase (lipids)
, trypsin (hydrophilic protein residues),
chymotrypsin (hydrophobic protein residues),
nuclease (DNA and RNA)
395
are released in an inactive form and are activated in the duodenum to perform hydrolysis
enzymes
396
breaks down starches into disaccharides; secreted by salivary glands and pancreas
amylase:
397
: breaks down disaccharides into glucose; secreted by small intestine
carbohydrase
398
enzymes are released in an _____ form and are activated in the ________ to perform hydrolysis
inactive, duodenum
399
breaks down proteins into amino acids; secreted by stomach chief cells and pancreas
protease (pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin):
400
breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids; secreted by pancreas and small intestine
lipase:
401
breaks down nucleic acids into nucleotides; secreted by pancreas
nuclease:
402
true or false Digestive Enzyme do not have an optimal pH
false
403
does The liver processes major nutrients for immediate use, storage or both
both
404
The liver converts glucose to
glycogen
405
The liver can also convert______&______ to fat to be stored in ______
proteins and glucose, adipose tissue
406
The liver can convert ____________ into what’s needed
stored nutrients
407
The liver detoxifies __________ as well as _____ and foreign_______
body waste, drugs, compounds
408
The liver synthesizes ________ proteins
plasma
409
The liver stores ______, ______, _______, _____ & ______
glycogen, fats, iron, copper and many vitamins
410
The liver activates vitamin__ (along with the kidney)
D
411
macrophages within the liver remove _______& _____
old RBCs and bacteria
412
The liver excretes _______& ________(from old RBCs) in bile
cholesterol and bilirubin
413
Small Intestine mixes food with__________&_________ secretions during segmentation, and slowly moves food along
pancreatic and liver, segmentation
414
small intestine finishes _________ digestion
chemical
415
in absorption of nutrients the lining of the small intestine has lots of surface area created by its ___________ (containing_______&_______
circular folds
villi and microvilli)
416
absorb monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides
blood vessels
417
lymphatic lacteal vessels absorb ___________ & _______
fatty acids and glycerol (monoglycerides)
418
Large Intestine absorbs ____, ______, ______, ____
electrolytes, water, vitamins, minerals
419
Large Intestine normal bacteria (e.g., E. coli) synthesize ________& _______, which can then be absorbed
B complex vitamins and vitamin K,
420
undigested food matter, bacteria, water, bilirubin and small amounts of salt
feces
421
is released by bacteria as they ferment carbohydrates
intestinal gas (flatus)
422
smooth muscle of the digestive tract is self-_______
excitatory
423
is the smooth muscle of the digestive tract voluntary or involuntary
involuntary
424
motility and secretion can be modified by _______& ________control
nerve and hormonal
425
hormones are secreted by the _______ tissue within the _______
endocrine, digestive tract
426
hormones are transported by the ___ and _____ other regions of the tract
blood, regulate
427
external environment for the digestive process
GI Tract
428
extrinsic control by ___ centers
CNS
429
intrinsic control by _____ centers
local
430
regulation of digestion involves 4 things
______& _________ stimuli
______________ receptors
_________ (fluid concentration),
presence of substrate in the_____
mechanical and chemical stimuli
stretch receptors
osmolarity (fluid concentration),
presence of substrate in the lumen
431
Receptors of the GI Tract
mechano- and chemoreceptors
432
Receptors of the GI Tract activate or inhibit_____
digestive glands
433
Receptors of the GI Tract mix _____contents and move them along
lumen
434
mechano- and chemoreceptors of the gi tract respond to:
stretch (measures volume),
osmolarity,
pH
presence of food substrate, type of food (proteins, carbs, lipids, nucleic acids) and end products of digestion
435
stimulates pancreas and gall bladder to release digestive enzymes and bile to the small intestine
cholecystokinin (CCK):
436
stimulates pancreas and bile duct to secrete base into small intestine to neutralize stomach acid
secretin:
437
clears stomach and small intestine of undigested material (gets the colon rollin’)
motilin:
438
: inhibits gastric motility and secretion of acid
gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
439
acts on the hypothalamus to increase hunger when stomach is empty
ghrelin:
440
regulates gastric acid secretion and promotes gastric mucosal growth
gastrin:
441
_____ plexus controls GI tract movements
myenteric plexus
442
_______ plexus regulates gland secretion
submucosal
443
intrinsic controls nerve plexuses (webs of nerves) near the GI tract initiate _________
short reflexes
444
short reflexes are mediated by local _____ plexuses (gut brain)
enteric
445
extrinsic controls of GI tract
| long _____ arising within or outside the ______
reflexes GI tract
446
extrinsic controls of GI tract involve___ centers and extrinsic ________ nerves
CNS
447
growth hormone (GH) comes from the_________ gland
Anterior Pituitary
448
```
growth hormone (GH) Stimulusis is releasing hormones of
___________
```
hypothalamus
449
growth hormone (GH ) Function is to stimulates growth of _____ organs in body; mobilizes _______ molecules, ______________ blood glucose level
all, food ,increasing
450
growth hormone (GH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes_______ & __________
giantism and acromegaly
451
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) comes from ______________ Gland
Anterior Pituitary
452
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of ___________
hypothalamus
453
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Function is stimulating synthesis & dispersion of ___________ in the skin
melanin pigment
454
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion results in the ______ of the skin
darkening
455
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH comes from the __________ )Gland
Anterior Pituitary
456
adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of _________
hypothalamus
457
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Function stimulates secretion of ______ hormones
adrenal cortex
458
adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion or hyposecretion of _______
adrenal cortex
459
follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) comes from __________ Gland
Anterior Pituitary
460
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)Stimulus is releasing hormones of ________
hypothalamus
461
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Function: males stimulates production and growth of ______ in seminiferous tubules of ____
females: stimulates development of follicles in ____ and secretion of____
sperm, testes
ovaries, estrogen
462
follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) Dysfunction/Disorders hyposecretion inhibits _________ and causes sterility
sexual development
463
luteinizing hormone (LH) comes from the ________ gland
Anterior Pituitary
464
luteinizing hormone (LH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of _______
hypothalamus
465
luteinizing hormone (LH) Function is males: stimulates secretion of________ by the_______ cells of the testes
females: stimulates the secretion of ________, stimulates maturation of _____________, triggers ovulation, and stimulates development of the _____
testosterone, interstitial
estrogen, ovarian follicle and ovum, corpus luteum
466
luteinizing hormone (LH) Dysfunction/Disorders hyposecretion inhibits _______ and causes sterility
sexual development
467
prolactin (PRL) comes from the _______ gland
Anterior Pituitary
468
prolactin (PRL) Stimulus is releasing hormones of
| __________
hypothalamus
469
prolactin (PRL) Function is stimulates_____development during pregnancy and _____ development after pregnancy
breast , milk
470
prolactin (PRL) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes________ lactation in nonnursing women and in men; hyposecretion causes________ lactation in nursing women
inappropriate, insufficient
471
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) comes from the _____ gland
Anterior Pituitary
472
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulus is releasing hormones of__________
hypothalamus
473
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Function is stimulates release of ______ hormone by the ____ gland
thyroid
474
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes _______; hyposecretion causes ________ in children and _______ in adults
hyperthyroidism, cretinis, myxedema
475
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) comes from the ________ gland
Posterior Pituitary
476
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulus is
hypothalamus
477
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) function is stimulates __________ by the kidneys
water retention
478
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Dysfunction/Disorder is hypersecretion results in abnormal ___________; hyposecretion causes _________
water retention, diabetes insipidus
479
oxytocin comes from the _______ gland
Posterior Pituitary
480
oxytocin stimulus is
hypothalamus
481
oxytocin function is stimulates _______ contractions at the end of pregnancy and the release of_____ into the ducts of the breast
uterine, milk
482
oxytocin Dysfunction/Disorder hypersecretion causes inappropriate ejection of ______ in lactating women; hyposecretion may cause prolonged or difficult____&_____
milk, labor and delivery
483
releasing hormones come from ______
Hypothalamus
484
releasing hormones Stimulus is s various ______ characteristics
blood
485
releasing hormones Function is stimulates ________ to release hormones
anterior pituitary
486
releasing hormones Dysfunction/Disorders is hypersecretion causes hypersecretion by
_______ =; hyposecretion causes hyposecretion by__________
anterior pituitar
487
inhibiting hormones comes from ____
Hypothalamus
488
inhibiting hormones Stimulus is s various_______ characteristics
blood
489
inhibiting hormones Function is inhibits ________ to stop releasing hormones
anterior pituitary
490
inhibiting hormones Dysfunction/Disorders hypersecretion causes hyposecretion by _______; hyposecretion causes hypersecretion by ____
anterior pituitary
491
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) comes from the ____ gland
Thyroid
492
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) stimulus is
pituitary TSH
493
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) function is stimulates __________ activities of
cells
energy metabolic
494
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) Dysfunction/Disorders is hypersecretion causes _____ _____; hyposecretion causes hypothyroidism, (pre-adult) ______, (adult) _______
hyperthyroidism,Graves disease, cretinism, myxedema, goiter
495
calcitonin comes from the ___ gland
Thyroid
496
calcitonin stimulus is
high blood calcium levels
497
calcitonin function is stimulates ________ using calcium in blood
bone formation
498
calcitonin Dysfunction/Disorders is hypersecretion can cause_______ hyposecretion can cause ______
hypocalcemia;, hypercalcemia
499
parathyroid hormone (PTH) comes from the ______ gland
parathyroid
500
parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulus is low _______ levels
blood calcium
501
parathyroid hormone (PTH) function is stimulates the breakdown of_____ and causes an increase in _____________
bone , blood calciumconcentrations
502
parathyroid hormone (PTH) Dysfunction/Disorder is hypersecretion can cause ______; hyposecretion can cause_________
hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia
503
thymosin and thymopoietin comes from ____ gland
Thymus
504
thymosin and thymopoietin stimulus is
immune system
505
thymosin and thymopoietin function is stimulate _________ to function against specific __________ in the immune response
T lymphocytes, pathogens
506
thymosin and thymopoietin Dysfunction/Disorder is multiple_______ dysfunctions
immune
507
mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) comes from _______ gland
Adrenal Cortex
508
mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) stimulus is
pituitary ACTH
509
mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) function is regulate ____& _______ homeostasis or balance
electrolyte and fluid
510
mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) dysfunction is hypersecretion causes increased ________ ;hyposecretion causes abnormal ________ or dehydration
water retention, water loss
511
cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids comes from ____________ gland
Adrenal Cortex
512
cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids stimulus is
pituitary ACTH
513
cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids function is stimulate_________, causing anincrease in blood glucose concentrations,and have anti-_____, anti-_______ and anti-_______ effects
gluconeogenesis, inflammatory, immunity, allergy
514
cortisol (hydrocortisone) and other glucocorticoids dysfunction is hypersecretion causes _______; hyposecretion causes ________
Cushing’s Syndrome, Addison’s disease
515
sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) comes from _______ gland
Adrenal Cortex
516
sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) stimulus is
pituitary ACTH
517
sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) function is adrenal androgens stimulate_______ in females, but adrenal estrogens have little effects in males
sexual drive
518
```
sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) dysfunction is hypersecretion causes premature ________ in females an
_____ of females; hyposecretion has no significant effect
```
sexual development , masculinization
519
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline comes from _____ gland
Adrenal Medulla
520
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline stimulus is
sympathetic nervous system
521
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline function is intensify and prolong the ______ response during stress
sympathetic
522
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline dysfunction is hypersecretion causes effects of ______; hyposecretion has no significant effect
stress
523
glucagon comes from ____ gland
Pancreatic Islets
524
glucagon stimulus is ____ blood glucose levels
low
525
glucagon function is stimulates__________, causing an
| increase in blood glucose
glycogenolysis
526
glucagon dysfunction is
uncertain
527
insulin comes from ______ gland
Pancreatic Islets
528
insulin stimulus is high ______levels
blood glucose
529
insulin function is s promotes glucose entry into cells, causing a decrease in_______
blood glucose
530
insulin dysfunction is hypersecretion causes severe insulin _______ or _______; hyposecretion causes_________
shock or hypoglycemia, diabetes mellitus
531
Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… regulating cellular ________, along with _____ & ________ balance
metabolism water and electrolyte
532
Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… helping (along with the autonomic N.S.) to coordinate the ________, _______ & ___________ of nutrients
digestion, storage and circulation
533
Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… helping the body adapt to ______ situations
stressful
534
Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through… regulating __________ production
red blood cell
535
Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through directing______ & _______
growth and development
536
Endocrine control helps maintain homeostasis through controlling _________
reproduction
537
hormone communication composed of glands that precisely secrete_________ (chemical messengers) into the________
hormones , bloodstream
538
hormones act on very specific receptors of _______ to change their activities and help to regulate _____________
target cells , metabolic processes
539
2 Main Types of Hormones
steroid (lipophilic):
amino acid (hydrophilic):
540
complex, ring-shaped lipid molecules; derived from cholesterol; enters nucleus of target cell to activate genes (direct gene action)
steroid (lipophilic):
541
involve larger molecules that bind to receptors on target cell membrane without entering cell; cause second messengers within cell to make functional changes
amino acid (hydrophilic):
542
within the cell initiate molecular reactions that change the physiological state of the cell.
Second messengers
543
true or false hormones are the first messengers
true
544
blood levels of hormones: are controlled by ________ feedback systems, vary only within a_____desirable range
negative , narrow
545
hormones are synthesized and released in response to _________, _______ & _________
humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli
546
hormones are continually excreted in _______ and broken down by certain________
urine , enzymes
547
: secretion of hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of ions and nutrients
humoral stimuli
548
nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
neural stimuli:
549
: release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs
hormonal stimuli
550
protein-based hormones travel freely in the
plasma
551
steroid hormones travel in the plasma carried by a
plasma protein
552
2 hormones released by the posterior pituitary are made
| by the_________
hypothalamus
553
what 2 hormones released by the posterior pituitary
antidiuretic hormone
oxytocin
554
hormone (targets kidneys, blood vessels, etc.)
antidiuretic
555
___________ (targets smooth muscle of mammary glands, uterus, vas deferens; can also mimic ADH)
oxytocin
556
(Neurohypophysis
Posterior Pituitary
557
(Adenohypophysis)
Anterior Pituitary
558
synthesizes and releases several hormones into the blood
Anterior Pituitary
559
5 tropic hormones
Growth Hormone (GH)
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH
560
true or false tropic hormones regulated other endocrine hormones
true
561
true or false, prolactin is a tropic hormones
false
562
consists of T3 (triiodothyronine) & T4 (thyroxine)
Thyroid Hormone
563
Thyroid Hormone accelerates the________ of most tissues
metabolic rate
564
Thyroid Hormone increases __________-responsiveness to epinephrine and norepinephrine
target cell
565
Thyroid Hormone essential for normal______ as well as the development and function of the ________
growth nervous system
566
type 1 diabetes level of insulin secretion
none or almost none
567
type 1 diabetes typical onset age
childhood
568
type 1 diabetes % of diabetics
10-20%
569
type 1 diabetes basic defect
autoimmune destruction of B cells
570
type 1 diabetes treatment
insulin injections & exercise with diet
571
type 2 diabetes level of insulin secretion
normal or exceed normal
572
type 2 diabetes typical onset age
adulthood
573
type 2 diabetes % of diabetics
80-90%
574
type 2 diabetes basic defect
reduced sensitivity to insulin's target cells
575
type 2 diabetes treatment
diet, weight loss
576
: results in 4 functional sperm cells
spermatogenesis
577
results in only 1 functional egg cell (rather than 4) due to disproportionate cytoplasmic division
oogenesis:
578
forms spermatids from spermatocytes
meiosis
579
forms sperm from spermatids (form tails and lose excess cytoplasm)
spermiogenesis
580
cells making up the walls of seminiferous tubules are in various stages of
cell division
581
sex hormones play roles in: the development and function of the
reproductive organs
582
sex hormones play roles in: ________behavior and drives
sexual
583
sex hormones play roles in: the _______ & ________ of many other organs and tissues
growth and development
584
in males sex hormones are secreted in constant___ quantities & _____ production is constant
low ,
585
“male hormones”, but small amounts in females
Androgens
586
cause secondary sex characteristics, bone and muscle maintenance
Androgens
587
testosterone produced in ____; androsterone synthesized in ____; others from adrenal glands
testes, liver
588
Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
```
_______________
secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
↓
message sent to
↓
__________
which secretes
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
-and- LH (luteinizing hormone)
```
message sent to
↓
________
hypothalamus
anterior pituitary
testes
589
_____ cells increase sperm production and produce inhibin
Sertoli
590
______cells secrete testosterone, which also supports sperm production
Leydig
591
Rising levels of ______ & __________act in a negative feedback loop to decrease the amount of__________ releasing hormone produced by the hypothalamus.
result = _______ & _______ production
are at fairly constant, controlled levels
testosterone and inhibin , gonadotropin
hormone and sperm
592
in the fetal period, ______(ovarian stem cells) multiply by mitosis and store nutrients
oogonia
593
_________ oocytes begin meiosis but stall before completion
primary
594
one _________ oocyte is ovulated each month beginning with puberty
secondary
595
if penetrated by sperm the secondary oocyte completes __________, yielding:
one large ________ (the functional gamete)
a tiny second _______ (cast off as waste)
meiosis II, ovum, polar body
596
upon entry of sperm, the secondary oocyte:
| completes ________ & casts out the second ________
meiosis II , polar body
597
the ovum nucleus swells, and the two nuclei approach each other when fully swollen, the two nuclei are called ___________
pronuclei
598
– when the pronuclei come together
fertilization
599
sperm fertilizes oocyte in the ______ to form a _____
oviduct, zygote
600
fertilization occurs ___ days before the end of the menstrual cycle
14
601
oocyte survives about 1 day following ______
ovulation
602
Contrary to most sources, sperm can survive __ days in the female!
5
603
zona pellucida: egg layer gelatinous, noncellular
functions:
- lock & key receptor site for _____
- prevents _________
- encases early ______cells
spem, polyspermy, cleavage
604
: about 3000 of these diploid cells surround the egg
corona radiata cells
605
: destroys corona radiata (many sperm needed to do this)
hyaluronidase
606
penetrates zona pellucida only in a successful sperm cell
acrosin:
607
in the ovarian cycle
_______ encases egg;
____________) is a blood clot that fills the follicle pit after ovulation;
_______ replaces CH and produces hormones;
___________ is a white scar left when corpus luteum cells die
ovary: follicle
corpus hemorrhagicum (CH
corpus luteum
corpus albicans
608
cause secondary sex characteristics, menstrual cycling, bone and muscle maintenance, blood clotting, fat storage
Estrogens
609
“female hormones”, but males have small amounts
Estrogens
610
levels decreased after menopause
Estrogens
611
Progesterone involved in _____ cycle
menstrual
612
Progesterone is a _____hormone
female
613
prepares for and maintains pregnancy; prevents uterine contractions,
Progesterone
614
sudden drop during pregnancy causes miscarriage
Progesterone
615
Sex Hormones are Secreted in a 4 step Cycles
egg maturation within a follicle
preparation of the endometrium for egg implantation
ovulation
implantation of fertilized egg (pregnancy)
-OR-
menstruation begins (no pregnancy)
616
Understand that lung volumes and capacities can be measured to examine respiratory health, and these measurements are collectively called
“spirometry.”
617
Hormonal Control of the Female Reproductive System
```
hypothalamus
secretes ________ hormone (GnRH)
↓
message sent to
↓
anterior pituitary
which secretes
______ &____ hormone)
message sent to
↓
ovaries / endometrium
```
gonadotropin releasing
```
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
and LH (luteinizing
```
618
```
ovarian _____ matures, which
contains an egg,
and endometrium
________
↓
ovaries secrete ____
rising estrogen levels
trigger
↓
mid-cycle surge in FSH and LH
triggers_______
```
follicle, thickens
estrogen
ovulation
619
Days____ of menstrual cycle all hormones low; blood & tissue discharged from uterus
Days 1-7
620
Days____ of menstrual cycle estrogen levels increase; follicle and uterine lining develop
Days 7-14
621
Days____ of menstrual cycle LH peaks & causes ovulation; estrogen is in decline
Day 14
622
Days____ of menstrual cycle LH declines; estrogen & progesterone increase
Days 14-21
623
Days____ of menstrual cycle all hormones decline (PMS week!!!)
Days 21-28:
624
O2 binds to hemoglobin when: temperature is ____
| CO2 levels are___
cool, low
625
What is the average number of nephrons per kidney?
1 million
