Sports Psychology (Paper 2) Flashcards
define personality
a unique social makeup
what does nature mean
aspects of a players personality that are stable, innate and enduring
what does nurture mean
The parts of a persons personality will develop by learning from others/the environment
what is trait theory
-we are born with innate characteristics called traits (stable and enduring)
-they are hard to change
-attempts to profile the individual
what is the social learning approach
-suggests behaviour is learned by significant others by socialisation
-we learn from people we hold in high esteem such as role models and parents and teachers
what is socialisation
developing personality traits by associating and learning from others
what is primary socialisation
socialisation from our family
what is secondary socialisation
socialisation from schools, media etc
why do we copy behaviour
because we see it as successful and powerful and that is what we consistently shown to us.
what is vicarious learning
observational learning which occurs when a person is motivated to learn by watching someone else work and be rewarded
what is the process for how we vicariously learn
observe -> identify -> reinforced -> copy
what is the interactionist perspective
a theory which combines the trait theory and social learning to predict behaviour in a specific situation
what does the interactionist perspective indicate
that born traits are adapted according to the situation
what formula summarises the interactionist perspective
behaviour = function(personality x environment)
how can the formula be shortened
B = f(p x e)
what does the equation b=f(p x e)suggest
that behaviour is a function of personality and environment
according to the interactionist perspective what happens when there is a change of environment
a change of behaviour
what is the Hollander approach to the interactionist persepctive
it suggests that personality is made up of 3 features:
-the core
-typical responses
-role related behaviour
in the Hollander approach to the interactionist perspective what does the core refer to
the individuals beliefs and values
in the Hollander approach to the interactionist perspective what does the typical responses refer to
the use of inherent traits displayed to specific situations
in the Hollander approach to the interactionist perspective what does role related behaviour refer to
suggests that a performer may adapt or adopt a very specific role when the situation demands
what does the hollander approach also suggest
that the more the environment is changed the more likely behaviour will change
what is the credulous approach
you believe the theories. you accept a link that personality can predict behaviour
what is the skeptical approach
you dont believe the theories, you doubt the link that personality can predict behaviour
how can the interactionist theory improve performance
- coach could take off the player to avoid them getting a punishment for aggressive behaviour
- coach may recreate these situations in training to make player accustomed to them in games
- coach try to change player behaviour by encouraging the player to adapt to circumstances
- if a player understands their behaviours they can monitor and adapt themselves
Define attitude
Ideas charged with emotion that produce specific behaviour to a specific situation
Attitudes are
- Unstable (changes)
- Learned
- directed towards an object
How are attitudes formed
Socialisation
What is socialisation
Process where cultural values are learnt by associating with others
What is the triadic model
A model that tells us what attitudes are made up of
What are the three parts of the triadic model
- Cognitive
- Affective
- Behavioural
What does cognitive refer to
- Your beliefs, knowledge and thoughts
- e.g. you believe exercise has benefits
What is the affective part of the triadic model
- Your feelings or emotional responses
- e.g. enjoying training
What is behavioural in the triadic model
- your actions or intended behaviour
- e.g. training three times a week
What two concepts are used to change attitude
- cognitive dissonance
- persuasive communication
What is cognitive dissonance
to create conflict and alter one part of the triadic model to create psychological discomfort in hope to motivate a change
How can cognitive dissonance be used
- give new information to promote the person to question their behaviour and motivate a change
- making the activity fun
- using rewards to promote positive behaviour
How could you create conflict to alter the cognitive aspect of the triadic model
Give new information/education
How could you create conflict and alter the affective aspect of the triadic model
- create new emotions e.g. enjoyment, fun etc.
How could you create conflict to alter the behavioural aspect of the triadic model
- give success/reinforcement
What is persuasive communication
An effective communication to promote change
For persuasive communication to work the person has to…
Pay attention, understand and accept the message being given
For persuasive communication to work the message must….
Be clear and relevant
For persuasive communication to work the person delivering the message must…
Be an expert and trustworthy so the impact of the message is high
Define Arousal
An energised state, a readiness to perform
How can Arousal be increased
By being watched or by a challenging situation such as a major game
What is the drive theory
-arousal increases and so does performance
-increases in linear fashion
What is the dominant response
-stand-out response that the performer thinks is right
-task is simple or performer is an expert then the response will be correct
-task is complex or performer is a novice then the response may be impaired
What is P=F(D x H)
Performance = Drive x Habit
Why does elite athletes peak performance happen when they are aroused
Because their dominant response is being chosen as habitual
What happens when a beginner is aroused
The dominant response may be incorrect and high levels can cause a deterioration in performance
What is the zone of optimal functioning
Area of controlled arousal and high performance
What is the inverted U theory
- Theory that links Arousal and performance by stating that increased amounts of arousal improves performance to an optimal point at moderate levels of arousal
- looks like a bell curve
How is personality affected by low arousal
Introverts apparently play best because they are said to have high adrenaline levels
How is personality affected by high levels of arousal
Extroverts can tolerate extra adrenaline levels so perform better at these levels
How is experience affected by low arousal
A novice performs better because they need to concentrate on lots of info. Uncomfortable under pressure, incorrect dominant response
How is experience affected by high arousal
Experts are used to the pressure and can operate on limited info. Dominant response is likely correct
How is the type/nature of the task affected by low arousal
Fine and complex skill are performed best because they require control and decision making
How is the type/ nature of the task affected by high arousal
Gross and simple skills are performed best because they don’t need as much control and decision making
What are the problems with the u theory
-Critics question if optimal arousal always occurs at the mid point of the curve
-One curve does not explain the different optimal levels of arousal needed for simple and complex tasks
What is the catastrophe theory
Theory suggesting that increased arousal improves performance to an optimal point but there is a dramatic reduction In performance when arousal increases beyond the optimal
How can the player recover from the catastrophe theory
-The player can only recover if initial anxiety is low and there is time available
-The player may not recover
What are the impacts of incorrect arousal in sport no matter the level of arousal
-Poor selective attention, cue missed
-lack of concentration
-slower, poor reaction time, slower decision making
-attentional wastage
-attentional narrowing
-failed to reach zone of optimal functioning
What are the impacts of incorrect arousal in sport specific to low arousal
-Social loafing
-Ringelman effect
What are the impacts of incorrect arousal in sport specific to over Arousal
-Violence
-Break Rules
What is attentional wastage
Performers concentration is misdirected to irrelevant cues. Can damage performance especially in novices
What is attentional narrowing
Occurs when a performer is aroused so they focus on certain cues and ignore other. Linked to dominant response
What is social loafing
Individual loss of motivation in a team player due to a lack of performance identification when efforts aren’t recognised
What is the Ringelman effect
When a teams performance decreases with group size
What would the zone of optimal functioning feel like
-Things flow effortlessly
-state of supreme confidence
-Remains calm under the utmost pressure
-The athlete feels totally in control of their actions and totally focused on the activity
-Results can be smooth effortless performance
What is peak flow performance
The ultimate intrinsic experience felt by athletes from a positive mental attitude, with supreme confidence, focus and efficiency
When does peak flow performance occur
When timing, action and motion appear to be perfect
What factors disrupt peak flow performance
-Poor mental preparation and the failure to reach optimal arousal levels
-Environmental influences - crowd pressures, refs decisions
-Injury or fatigue
What does peak flow performance feel like
- highly focused on the task
- movement or skills feel effortless
- clear goals
- high levels of confidence
- sub conscious feelings of control
What is anxiety
a negative aspect of stress characterised by irrational thinking, loss of concentration and fear of failure.
What are the two types of anxiety
Competitive State
Competitive Trait
What tends to happen in competitive trait anxiety
• A disposition to suffer nerves in most sporting situations
• Consistent
• Stable
• e.g. A player worrying before all games
• Anxious behaviour all the time
What tends to happen in competitive state anxiety
• Anxiety experienced at a specific time during a competitive situation
• Situation dependent
• Temporary rush of anxiety
• Caused by threatening circumstances, e.g. taking a penalty
• May be cognitive and/or somatic
Symptoms of anxiety can be categorised in 2 groups what are they
Somatic
Cognitive
What symptoms of anxiety would be considered as somatic symptoms
■ Physiological responses
■ Muscular tension
■ Shaking
■ Pacing
■ Poor co-ordination
■ Sweating
■ Increased heart rate
What symptoms of anxiety can be considered as cognitive symptoms
• Psychological responses
• Irrational thinking- nerves
• Worrying
• Confusion
• Loss of concentration
Somatic anxiety is similar to what arousal theory
Inverted U Theory
Cognitive symptoms of anxiety are similar to what arousal theory
Negative linear (Drive theory)
What causes anxiety
Being watched
Letting down the team
Playing badly
Injury
Increased competition
Running out of time when losing
How do you measure anxiety
Questionnaire
Observation
Physiological measures
What are the positives of measuring anxiety using questionnaires
Quick, cheap and easy
Results allow easy comparison
What are the negatives of measuring anxiety with questionnaires
- people give socially acceptable answers
- Misinterpretation of Questions
- Answers may depend on mood
- Questions may be inappropriate and lead to biased answers being given
- may rush the questionnaire and not think about the answers
What is meant by measuring anxiety by observation
Measuring anxiety by watching
Why is observation a good method of measuring anxiety
It is true to life
What are the negatives of using obersavtion to measure anxiety
It is subjective (based on observers opinion)
Must know the performer
Time consuming
May need more than 1 observer
Behaviour may change if they know that they are being watched
What is meant by measuring anxiety using physiological measures
Measure the physical response from the body
What are the positives of using physiological measures to observe anxiety
Are factual and allow comparisons to be made
Responses can be measured in real game situations (GPS)
What are the negatives of using physiological measures to measure anxiety
Training can be required to use the equipment and cost may inhibit use
Wearing the device may restrict performance
The performer may be affected by wearing the device giving more stress and a false reading
Define Motivation
The drive to suceed
What are the four types of motivation
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Tangible
Intangible
What is intrinsic motivation
Motivation from within
Give an example of intrinsic motivation
Satisfaction of successfully completing a task
What is extrinsic motivation
Motivation from outside source
Give an example of extrinsic motivation
Praise from the coach, other players, scouts
What is tangible motivation
Motivation from things you can touch
Give an example of tangible motivation
Trophies, certificates etc.
What is intangible motivation
Motivation from non physical objects
Give examples of intangible motivation
Praise, concern, encouragement
What are the advantages of extrinsic motivation
Attracts to the activity
Provides early motivation
Better for beginners
What are the disadvantage of extrinsic motivation
May undermine the value of the activity
May put pressure on players to achieve, if not achieved motivation can be lost
This pressure may promote cheating
Give the advantages of intrinsic motivation
Stronger
Longer lasting
Effective
More satisfaction, pride and a sense of control
How might coaches motivate players
Attribute success internally
Set attainable goals
Rewards, praise and positive reinforcement
Make the task fun and enjoyable
Define aggression
Intent to harm outside the rules; hostile behaviour
Define assertion
Well motivated behaviour within the rules
What are the characteristics of aggression
Uncontrolled
Intent to harm
Outside rules
Reactive
What are the characteristics of assertion
Controlled
No intent to harm
Within rules
Motivated
What are the 4 theories of aggression that we need to know
Instinct Theory
The Frustration Aggression hypothesis
The Aggression Cue Hypothesis
Social Learning theory
What is catharsis
Cleansing the emotions using sport as an outlet for aggression
What does the instinct theory suggest
That the aggressive response is innate
What are the four evaluations of the instinct theory
- Aggression may not be spontaneous.
- Aggression is pre-planned/learned.
- Evolution, not all aggressive.
- Performers in aggressive sports calmer away from the game. Through Catharsis
What does the frustration aggression hypothesis suggest
Aggression is inevitable when frustrating circumstance causes our goals to be blocked
How does the frustration aggression hypothesis suggest aggression happens
Blocked Goal -> Frustration -> aggression -> catharsis
Note: if catharsis not released further frustration is felt
What does the aggression cue hypothesis suggest
That aggression is caused by learned cues when present
What does the social learning theory suggest about aggression
Aggression is learned from experiences, coaches, role models and significant others
According to the social learning theory how is aggression copied
It is copied when it is reinforced
How could coaches prevent aggression
Don’t reinforce aggressive acts in training
Punishing players with fines, sub them
Teach relaxation, stress management, calming players down
Reinforce assertion in training
Pointing out responsibilities to the team
How could officials prevent aggression
Sending players off
Applying the rules consistently and fairly
How could player prevent aggression
Mental Rehearsal
Teaching relaxation and stress management
Setting goals on performance not outcomes
Walking away from situations
Channeling aggression into assertion
How could organisations prevent aggression
Applying sanctions
What is achievement motivation
The desire to succeed minus the fear of failure
What are the two personality types Atkinson proposed
Approach behaviour
Avoidance behaviour
What is approach behvaiour
Approaches competition with enthusiasm e.g,. asks to take the penalty
What is avoidance behaviour
Tries to avoid the competition e.g. doesn’t want to take pen because he is scared he will miss (avoid)
What are the characteristics of Approach behaviour
- The need to achieve.
- Welcome competition.
- They take risks.
- Welcome feedback and evaluation.
- Try harder after failure.
- Attribute success internally
- Base their actions on seeking pride and satisfaction from their performance
What are the characteristics of avoidance behaviour
- The need to avoid failure.
- Avoid competition.
- Take the easy option.
- Give up easily.
- Do not like feedback or evaluation
- Do not take responsibility for their actions
Define interaction
The combination of the situational and personality factors that decide the level of achievement motivation
What does the approach behaviour depend on
The interaction of the personality and the situation
What does personality refer to in terms of what determines an approach or avoidance behaviour
- The need to achieve or Avoid failure
- Introvert or Extrovert personality
- Confidence levels
- Innate or developed
What does situation refer to in terms of what determines a approach or avoidance behaviour
- The probability of success
- Incentive value
- Familiar or unfamiliar environment
Explain what probability of success refers to
high chance leads to high motivation, low chance then people give up, lack motivation
Explain what incentive value refers to
reward gained from the task, high value reward leads to high motivation, low value rewards then people give up, lack motivation
How do you develop the need to achieve personality
- Attribute success internally
- Use reinforcement
- Set goals
- Improve confidence
-Allow success
What does attributing success internally mean
Tell the player that success is due to them, their effort, technique and skills - this protects the players ego
What does using reinforcement refer to
A coach could offer praise and rewards to players who do well or achieve goals, this maintains motivation and promotes task persistence
What does setting goals refer to
Goals should be realistic and achievable which means satisfaction is gained leading to increased intrinsic motivation which in turns leads to approach behaviour
What does allowing success refer to
Encourage belief and motivation to improve confidence by setting easy drills
What is achievement goal theory
Motivation and Task persistence depend on the type of goals set and how their success is measured
What does task related goals refer to in achievement goal theory
- Measure the process of success against the performers own standards
- Regardless of the result success can be achieved and confidence maintained
What does outcome related goals refer to in achievement goal theory
- Doesn’t matter how the result is achieved as long as the goal is reached
- If the performer succeeds pride and satisfaction are maintained
- If they fail confidence and motivation can be lowered
Define social facilitation/inhibition
The behavioural effects due to others present
What is social inhibition
The negative effects of the presence of others on performance
What is social facilitation
The positive effect of the presence of others on performance
What are the four types of others who can be present when playing sport
The audience
The co actors
The competitors
The social reinforcers
What does the audience refer to
-Those are people who are watching (spectators, to audience etc.)
-Their presences causes pressure
what does the competitors refer to
people who are in conflict with the performer
what does co actors refer to
people who do the sport alongside you
what does the social reinforcers refer to
people who have a direct influence on performance and their presence is apart of the event
what is evaluation apprehension
the fear of being judged
evaluation apprehension can be worse if the ….
- audience is known to us
- if the audience is critical
- if the crowd contains someone like a scout
- if the player lacks confidence
How do you prevent social inhibition
- Get the players familiar playing in front of a crowd
- Gradually introducing evaluation
- improving focus and concentration
- lower arousal levels
- decrease the importance of an event
- peer support groups
How would you get player to be familiar with playing in front of a crowd
train with a distraction so the team get used to it. Gradually building up the amount of audience the players have and the importance of the people watching
How would you gradually introduce evaluation
the level of assessment should build up gradually. A team may have informal chats before progressing to statistical analysis. Support from other players and peers may help at this stage
How would you improve focus and concentration
players could focus on the key information not the audience so they focus in relevant information
How would you lower arousal levels
Imagery, Visualisation and other stress management techniques
A group has the following dynamics….
- Collective identity
- interaction between members
- shared objectives
- communication
What does a collective identity refer to in the characteristics of a group
- means the team can be easily recognised (usually because they wear the same colour)
- a strong affiliation to the team develops and gives motivation and a sense of belonging
What does interaction refer to in the characteristics of a group
- interaction can be seen as the way that team players work together to complete a task
What does communication refer to in the characteristics of a group
- to help with interaction, the individual players in the team should talk to each other and communicate
- this can be non verbally (coded plays)
What does a shared objective refer to in the characteristics of a group
- the prospect of achieving success is what often keeps players in the team and working for each other
- players should want to aim for the same goal to have maximum motivation
How do groups form
Tuckman’s model
What are the stages of Tuckman’s Model
- forming
- storming
- norming
- performing
What is forming in Tuckman’s model
- group comes together and gets to know each other
- individuals often finding out how they feel about the team and whether they’ll fit in
- assessment is made on the strengths of the individual compared to strengths of other in group
What is storming in Tuckman’s model
- stage of potential conflict
- individuals may compete with others to establish position, status or role in the team
- issues should be resolved quickly
What is norming in Tuckman’s model
- once conflicts have been resolved the team begins to settle down and co-operate to achieve goals
- group standards are accepted and cohesion of the team develops
What is performing in Tuckman’s model
- all players are now interactive and working together to achieve their goals
- team members support each other and understand their role in the team
How long does it take to complete Tuckman’s model
- Varies, depending on the size of the group, difficulty of the task and experience of players
- some clubs are established and can welcome new players
- representative teams may take longer since the player have to learn unfamiliar tactics and new roles within a limited time span during infrequent meetings
Define cohesion
Forces acting to keep members of a team within the group integrated and focused
What are the types of cohesion
- task
- social
Task cohesion is focused on…
The results/outcomes
Social cohesion is focused on…..
The team working together
Define interaction
Everyone completing different roles but having to integrate them all together
Define co-action
Everyone completes the task at the same time but separately - e.g. rowing
What is carrons antecedents
- the factors that may affect cohesion
- can be: Environmental, Personal, Team and Leadership factors
What do environmental factors refer to
- age
- contractual obligation
- time spent as group
- size of the group
What does personal factors refer to
- aspirations
- work ethic
- opinions
- happiness
What does leadership factors refer to
- leadership style (autocratic, democratic, laissez faire etc.)
- the leaders relationship with teammates
What do team factors refer to
- team ability
- shared experience
What is cohesion affected by
- unequal pay
- size of the group
- likelihood of future success
Lack of cohesion is caused by
- poor tactics
- social loafing
- misunderstanding of roles
What is Steiner’s Model
Actual Productivity = Potential Productivity - Faulty Process
What does actual productivity refer to
The performance of the team in the game
What does potential productivity refer to
The groups best performance when at optimal cohesiveness
What does faulty process refer to
Factors that could go wrong and reduce cohesiveness
Faulty processes could be
- coordination problems (poor tactics, poor communication)
- motivational problems (Ringelmann effect, social loafing)
What is the ringelmann effect
When group performance decreases when the group size increases
Define social loafing
Individual loss of motivation in a team player due to a lack of performance identification when individual efforts are not recognised
What causes social loafing
- lack of fitness
- poor leadership
- high state/trait anxiety
- social inhibition
How do you avoid social loafing
- encouraging group identity (sense of belonging motivation increases etc.)
- use statistics tell and/or punish social loafing
- praise rewarding behaviour
- develop social cohesion
What are the benefits of goal setting
- Builds confidence levels
- provides motivation
- becomes task persistent
What are the three types of goals
- outcome
- performance
- process
What are outcome goals
Goals focused in the end results
What are the advantages and disadvantages of outcome goals
Advantages:
- can maintain motivation if succeed even if the team puts in poor performance
Disadvantages:
- may promote cheating
Give an example of outcome goals in sport
A team could perform poorly but scrape the victory so the motivation is maintained
What is a performance goal
A goal focused on getting better performance
What are the advantages of performance goals
- You can lose the game but still get success which maintains motivation. E.g. in athletics
- reduces anxiety
- consistent motivation
What is process goal
A goal based on improving technique or strategy. Can be used in any sport
What is an advantage of using process goals
Improvement in a certain piece of technique should improve the overall skill
What does S in SMARTER refer to
Specific; goals should be clear concise and personal to the perfomer
What does M in SMARTER refer to
Measured; this allows the progress and comparison to be identified
What does A in SMARTER refer to
Achievable; the performer should be able to reach their goal so motivation is maintained
What does R in SMARTER refer to
The goals need to be reachable to maintain motivation
What does T in SMARTER refer to
Time-bound; short and long term goals need to be identified so all concerned have a deadline to keep
What does E in SMARTER refer to
Evaluate; Performer and coach should evaluate how the goal was achieved and what did or didnt work well
What does R in SMARTER refer to
Re-do; if the goal isn’t achieved or slow it can be repeated or the target can be altered
What is attribution theory
A perception for the reason of the outcome of an event - the reason why we won or lost
What was Weiner 1974
A model which classified the factors into 2 sections (locus of causality and stability dimension) and then 2 sub-sections (internal, external, stable, unstable)
What is the locus of causality
If the reason is in control or out of control of the performer
What is the internal attribute in the locus of causality
This is where the reason is within the control of the performer (ability, effort)
What is the external attribute in the locus of causality
A factor that is out of control of the performer (task difficulty, luck)
What is the stability dimension
Whether the likelihood of the reason will change in a short amount of time
What is the unstable attribute in the stability dimension
The reason is likely to change in short amount of time (effort, luck)
What is the stable attribute in the stability dimension
When the reason isn’t likely to change in a short amount of time (task difficulty, ability)
What are the factors that affect attribution (the reasons)
- referees decisions (external stable)
- ability (internal stable)
- luck (external unstable)
- task difficulty (external stable)
- effort (internal unstable)
- injury (internal stable)
What is self-serving bias
- When you blame external and/or unstable reasons for loss. This maintains motivation and task persistence.
- e.g. ‘we lost because the ref decision were totally wrong’
What is learned helplessness
- When we blame internal stable reasons for loss (blame ourselves)
- can lead to lack motivation, effort and confidence. Performer may believe every time they play they will fail
What are the two types of learned helplessness
- global/general learned helplessness
- specific/situation learned helplessness
What is global learned helplessness
When we say ‘I’m so bad at sports’
What is situational learned helplessness
When we say ‘I’m not good at serving so we won’t win the match’
How can learned helplessness be stopped
- attribute success internally
- blame external causes
- attribution retraining
- avoid social comparisons
What is attribution retraining
Changing the reasons for success and failure. This provides increase self-esteem because learned helplessness is removed
How does self serving bias impact a player/squad
It maintains motivation and confidence by not attributing poor performances or loses to internal stable attributes.
If an internal unstable reason is used for the outcome of an event what happens?
- If an internal unstable reason is used motivation and confidence is maintained if the outcome is a win
- if it used for a loss a player may take on the advice and adapt to the feedback (because the attribute is unstable) or their motivation and confidence may be affected
If an internal stable attribute is used for a reason for an outcome what is the impact of it
- If an internal stable attribute is used to blame a loss, confidence and motivation is reduced and the development of learned helplessness may happen
- if it used to attribute a win motivation and confidence will increase
What is the impact of attributing an outcome to an external unstable attribute
- If an external unstable is used to attribute a loss we are using self serving bias. This in turns maintains our motivation and confidence
- if an external unstable attribute is used to attribute a loss presumably a small amount of motivation and confidence is lost due to the fact that a win wasn’t because the team or certain players performances were good
What is the impact of us using an external stable reasons for an outcome
- for a loss or a win motivation and confidence is maintained because we can’t control it
what is self efficacy
belief in your ability to master a specific situation
what is confidence based on according to Vealey
- Personality (how competitive you are and achievement motivation)
- Experience (your past successes on the task at hand and belief to succeed in the future)
- Situation (e.g. playing at home or away)
according to Vealey what does confidence rely on
relies on personality, experience and situation as the combination of all which affect your confidence
what are the two types of confidence 1
- trait confidence
- state confidence
what is trait confidence
- the belief in the ability to well in a range of situations
- consistent, innate confidence shown in most situations
what is state confidence
- the belief in the ability to master a specific sporting moment
- confidence shown in specific situations e.g. taking a penalty
- it is temporary.
what is Vealey’s model of self confidence
- a model looking at the influence of state and trait confidence, the situation and the competitive orientation.
- it was suggested that state and trait confidence combine to produce confidence in an objective sporting situation
what is competitive orientation
how much a performer is drawn to challenging situations
what is objective sporting situation
the performance is a combination of the type of skill and the situation the skill is performed in
what does Vealey’s model of self confidence say about your self confidence for a skill you’ve successfully competed in the past
- it says that both state and trait confidence will be high but the objective sporting situation takes into account the conditions and the crowd or pressure
- the performer then evaluates the result of the performance
- the player then makes judgement of how well they did
- the result of the judgement may lead to improved confidence and a good competitive orientation
how does the competitive sporting situation affect confidence
- combines the skill being performed with the situation it is performed in
- previously successful skill increases confidence
- a familiar situation increases confidence
- allows the performer to evaluate the outcome
- can increase confidence for your next performance
- maintains effort and task persistence
what is the self efficacy theory (bandura 1977)
a theory suggesting that high self efficacy increases task persistence and motivation and is affected by 4 factors in any situation
what four factors affect self efficacy in any situation
- perofrmance accomplishments (past success)
- vicarious experience (seeing other do it)
- verbal persuasion (reinforcement and encouragement)
- emotional arousal (your interpretation of your level of anxiety)
how can you improve confidence through performance accomplishments according to banduras self efficacy theory
- set realistic goals
- allow success in training
- point out past successful performances
how can you improve your confidence through vicarious experience according to banduras self efficacy theory
- show accurate demonstrations using role models
- modelling to allow copying to occur
- builds confidence through seeing a successful performance
- more effective if the performer is of a similar ability
how can you improve your confidence through verbal persuasion according to banduras self efficacy theory
- avoids social comparison
- coach one on one
- use intrinsic, extrinsic, intangible and tangible rewards
- attribute success internally
how can you improve your confidence through emotional arousal according to banduras self efficacy theory
- stress management techniques to control arousal
- use mental practice, visualisation or imagery
what are the effects of the homefield advantage
effects are better if:
- the crowd are closer to the pitch
- if the crowd is big and supportive
effects are worse if:
- the crowd are hostile
what is the homefield advantage
when a team is playing a fixture at their home ground
what are the advantages of homefield advantage for the home team
- support and encouragement from fans
- familiar environment can lead to optimal arousal and/or social facilitation
- support increases confidence and motivation
- no tiredness from travelling
- home crowd pressures away team
- assertive behaviour
what are the advantages of homefield advantage for the away team
none
what are the disadvantages of homefield advantage for the home team
- increased pressure to perform in front of fans, raises anxiety can decrease performance
- evaluation apprehension
what are the disadvantages of homefield advantage for the away team
- increased anxiety due to crowd hostility
- social inhibition
- potential tiredness from travel
What is a leader
someone who has influence in helping others to achieve their goals
How does a leader help a team
Can maintain effort ad motivation by inspiring the team or setting target
What types of leaders are there
Emergent
Prescribed
What is an emergent leader
A leader that has been appointed from within the group (e.g. elected by team members)
What is a prescribed leader
A leader that is chosen from outside the group (e.g. from the coach)
What are examples of characteristics needed of a leader
- charisma
- inspirational
- confidence
- communication
- experience
- interpersonal skills
What are the styles of leadership
- Autocratic
- Democratic
- laissez faire
What is autocratic leadership
- When the leader makes all decisions
- task oriented
- outcome based
What is democratic leadership
- When the leader listens to the group before making a decision
- leader is concerned with individual success and well being
What is a laissez faire leader
- when the leader has little input
- decisions made and led by senior players
- can result to less motivated players to stop working
What is fiedlers contingency model
A model that suggests what type of leadership best operates in different situations (most, moderate and least favourable)
Why would an autocratic leadership style be suitable in the most favourable situation
- clear task
- group get on
- leader is strong
- respect for leader (team will listen to decisions)
- high ability
- high levels of motivation
Why would a democratic leadership style be appropriate in a moderately favourable situation
- need for consultation
- some support
- some harmony
- some clarity
- time to discuss
- motivation is moderate
- group has reasonable ability
Why is an autocratic leadership style appropriate for the least favourable situation
- unclear task
- hostile group
- weak leader
- little respect for leader
- low ability
- low motivation
- little support for group members
What is Chelladurai’s multi dimensional model of leadership
The interactive approach a leader should take so his input is balanced to the situation, the leader and the group.
What factors affect the situation in Chelladurai’s multi dimensional model of leadership
- time available
- type of task
- danger
What factors affect the leader in Chelladurai’s multi dimensional model of leadership
- leader characteristics
- experience
- preference
What factors affect the group in Chelladurai’s multi dimensional model of leadership
- group size
- group ability
- age
- gender
What is leadership behaviour
Expressing different leadership styles for different sporting situation.
What things leadership behaviour
- required behaviour (what the situation demands)
- preferred behaviour (what the group wants)
These two things will determine the actual behaviour which then lead to the consequences.
What is stress
A negative response of the body to a threat causing anxiety
What is Eustress
A positive response of the body to a threat
What are the cognitive effects of stress
Anxiety
Fear
Aggression
What are the somatic effects of stress
Sweating
Shaking
Feeling sick
What is a stressor
A cause of stress
What are examples of stressors
- injury
- important games
- good opponents
- rewards
- fear of failure
what is cognitive stress
- negative and irrational thoughts and feelings. heavily psychological
- can lead to attentional narrowing
what is somatic stress
- stress shown physiological
- can lead to increased hr, body temp, sweating, nausea etc.
what ways can we prevent somatic stress
- biofeedback (using devices to identify physical changes under stress)
- progressive muscle relaxation (alternating periods of muscle tension and relaxation)
- centring (controlled breathing whilst relaxing chest and shoulders)
- breathing control (controlling and concentrating on rate of depth of breathing)
what way can we prevent cognitive stress
- thought stopping (using a trigger remove thoughts)
- positive self talk (replacing negative thoughts on performance with positive ones)
- imagery (recreating a feeling of successful movement)
- visualisation (using a mental image of the skill)
- mental rehearsal (going over the movements in your mind)
- attentional control (changing focus of attention to relevant cues) and cue utilisation (ability to process information directly linked to the level of arousal)
what does niddefer’s model of attentional focus suggest
that we must choose the right attentional style for the right situation. this allows unrequired information to be filtered and relevant information to be focussed on
according to niddefer’s model of attentional focus what are the four sporting contexts
- broad (attending to several stimuli with wide vision
- narrow (focusing on one or two cues)
- internal (inner thoughts)
- external (looking at the environment)
when might you choose broad and external attention style
when there are many cues concerning the environment (fast paced, open) e.g. position of players in the field
when might you choose a broad and internal attention style
when there are many cues concerning the performer e.g. the certain role and movements a player has to do in a game
when might you choose a narrow and external attention style
when there 1 or two cues concerning the environment e.g. golfer putting into hole
when might you use a narrow and internal attention style
when there are one or two cues concerning the performer e.g. trying to concentrate on their weakness
what is biofeedback
- using a device to help recognise the physical changes in the body that happen under stress and then using calming techniques to calm down
- measures HR, muscle tension, temperature, electrical activity
what is progressive muscle relaxation
- altering between a period muscle tension and relaxation (muscles are tensed, held and then relaxed)
what is centering
- breathing control whilst relaxing the chest and shoulders using controlled breaths. slow breathing diverts attention away from the stressful situation, kicker in rugby
what is thought stopping
- using a trigger like a clap, snap of the fingers or pre game ritual to remove unhelpful thoughts
what is positive self talk
- replacing negative thoughts about performance with positive ones
what is imagery
- recreating a feeling of successful movement
- formation of mental pictures of a good performance
- e.g. a netball shooter can imagine the satisfaction of a scoring a goal to win the game
what is visualisation
- using a mental image of the skill
- can help to overcome pressures
- e.g. golfer practices strokes a few metres away before hitting the ball
what is mental rehearsal
- going over the movements in your mind, best in calm situations
what is meant when visualisation, imagery and mental rehearsal is internal/external
internal - (kinesthesis and emotions of the movement)experiencing the feeling/sensation of the movement
external - (environment, details of the pitch and opponents) seeing yourself complete the movement
what is attentional control/cue utilisation
- attentional control is changing the focus of attention to detect relevant cues
- cue utilisation is when the ability to process information is directly linked to the level arousal.
basically meaning that under stress you focus on less cues from the environment and miss key cues affecting decision making (aka attentional wastage) leading to reduced performance. works roles reversed but minus attentional wastage
what may happen at high arousal
- narrow attentional field
- information missed
- potential attentional wastage
what may happen at moderate level of arousal
- relevant information received
what may happen at low arousal
- broad attentional field
- lots of information received, may be unable process it all
- confusion
