Social Psychology Pre-reading Flashcards
Freud believed that the “_____ part of the mind exerts great influence on ______”
unconscious
behavior
Where do wishes/impulses find expression?
A distorted expression in dreams
What are the three Freudian states of mind?
Conscious = aware Preconscious = able to recall to mind Unconscious = unknown
What is the pleasure principle?
seeking immediate gratification or release, regardless of rational considerations and environmental realities
What is the reality principle?
The testing of reality to decide when and under what conditions the id can safely discharge it’s impulses.
When does the superego develop?
around 4 or 5
What are ALL the psychoanalytic ego defence mechanisms?
- Repression
- Denial
- Displacement
- Intellectualization
- Projection
- Rationalization
- Reaction Formation
- Sublimation (repressed impulse released in socially acceptable, or even praised way)
What is a Freudian psychosexual stage?
A time in which the id’s pleasure seeking tendencies are focused on specific pleasure-sensitive areas of the body.
What is the name of the pleasure sensitive area of the body in the psychosexual stages?
The erogenous zone.
What is a fixation?
A state of arrested psychosexual development in which instincts are focused on a particular psychic theme.
What causes a fixation?
Over or under indulgence during a specific psychosexual stage
What is regression (in psychosexual terms)
A psychological retreat to an earlier psychosexual stage?
What are the psychosexual stages?
Oral (sucking/mouth) Anal (expulsion/ass) Phallic (genital) Latency (6 year dormancy) Genital (direct expression in sexual relationships)
What is a neoanalytic theorist?
Psychoanalysts who disagreed with certain aspects of Freud’s thinking and developed their own theories. (Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson)
What do neoanalytic theorists generally believe.
- Freud placed too much emphasis on infantile sexuality and not enough on social and cultural factors
- Too much emphasis on childhood as a predictor for adulthood
Define social thinking
How we think about our social world
Define social influence
How other people influence our behavior
Define social relations
How we relate to other people
Define attribution
A judgement about the causes of our own and other people’s behavior and outcomes
Internal attributions are sometimes called _______ attributions
Personal
External attributions are sometimes called ______ attributions
Situational
According to Harold Kelly, what are the three factors that influence attribution making?
- Consistency (is the attribution consistently made regardless of time)
- Distinctiveness (is the attribution unique - with regards to other attributions about similar situations)
- Consensus (is the attribution popular/regularly made)
Internal attributions tend to be made when consistency is ______, distinctiveness is ________, and consensus is _________.
High
Low
Low
External attributions tend to be made when consistency is ________, distinctiveness is ________, and consensus is _________.
High
High
High
If consistency is low then we attribute the behavior to _______ ______
Transient conditions
What is the fundamental attribution error?
We underestimate the impact of situational/external factors and overestimate the role of internal factors when explaining other people’s behaviors
What were the results of Ross and colleagues (1977) study?
Participants, quiz master, and impartial audience rated the quiz masters as more intelligent then the contestant, neglecting the situational factor that the quiz master devised questions from their own knowledge bank, therefore demonstrating fundamental attribution error as personal factors were emphasized while situational factors were under-emphasized.
Is the fundamental attribution error inevitable?
No
What is the self serving bias?
The tendency to make personal attributions for successes and situational attributions for failures. The opposite bias is observed in depressed people.
When is the self-serving bias not observed?
In depressed people, in fact the opposite effect is observed.
Western emphasis on _______ results in more _______ attributions. Eastern emphasis on _______ results in more ________ attribution.
Individualism
Internal
Collectivism
External
What demographic is less likely to display the self-serving bias?
Asian people
What is the primacy effect?
The tendency to attach more importance to the initial information that we learn about a person.
What is the recency effect?
Giving greater weight to the most recent information
When people are asked to avoid snap judgements and carefully consider, the primacy effect is ______ while the recency effect is _______.
Reduced
Emphasized
What is a perceptual set?
Perceptual set = readiness to perceive the world in a particular way
Describe a self fulfilling prophecy
Occurs when people’s expectations lead them to act toward others in a way that beings about the expected behaviors, thereby confirming the original impression.
Define attitude
A positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a stimulus, such as a person, action, object, or concept.
Theory of planned behavior states that we are more likely to engage in a behavior if:
- We have a positive attitude towards behavior
- Subjective norms support our attitudes
- When we believe the behavior is in our control
Attitudes have a stronger influence on our behavior when we are ______ of them, and when they are ______ held.
aware
strongly
________ attitudes best predict general behaviors, while _______ attitudes best predict specific behaviors.
General
Specific
What is counterattitudinal behavior?
Behavior that is inconsistent with ones attitudes
What is the self perception theory?
We make inferences about our own attitudes based on how we behave
What do the ideas of Cognitive Dissonance and Self Perception Theory both seek to explain?
How behavior can drive attitude change
Is it more effective to present the oppositions argument and debunk it, or to only present your own argument?
The former
What is the ‘Central Route to Persuasion’?
Occurs when people think carefully about the message and are influenced because they find the arguments compelling.
Describe the ‘Peripheral Route to Persuasion’?
Occurs when people do not scrutinize the arguments but are mostly influenced by other factors.
What is a social expectation?
A shared experience about how people should think, feel, and behave
What is the Autokinetic effect?
A stationary dot projected onto a dark screen is perceived to move
What did Sherif’s autokinetic effect experiments show?
That groups always develop norms, and that individual opinions always shift towards the group norm
What is ‘Informational Social Influence’?
When you follow the opinions or behavior of other people because we believe that they have accurate knowledge and that what they are doing is right.
What is ‘Normative Social Influence’?
Conforming to obtain the rewards that come from being accepted by other people while at the same time avoiding their rejection.
What were the factors that influenced conformity in Asch’s experiments?
- Group Size
2, Presence of dissenter
What is ‘Minority Influence’?
The ability of a minority to change the opinion of the majority
When does ‘Minority Influence’ increase?
When there are multiple minority members and the minority appears convinced of his view
What influences ‘Communicator Credibility’?
- Expertise
2. Trustworthiness
What is ‘Communicator Credibility’ ?
How believable we perceive the communicator to be
What are the factors that influenced obedience in the Milgram experiment?
- Remoteness of the victim
- Closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure
- Diffusion of responsibility
- Personal characteristics (of participants)
What is the purpose of Compliance Techniques?
To get someone to do something that they don’t want to do.
What is the ‘Norm of Reciprocity’?
Involves the expectation that when others treat us well, we should respond in kind.
Describe the ‘foot-in-the-door’ technique?
A persuader gets you to comply with an initial, trivial request, before gradually escalating into larger and larger requests.
Describe the ‘low-balling’ technique?
A persuader gets you to commit to some action and then increases the cost of the action before you actually perform it.
What is ‘Social Loafing’?
The tendency to put in less effort in a group then alone.
In what groups does the most Social Loafing occur.
In all male groups vs mixed or all female groups.
Describe the ‘Social Effort Model’?
People will only put in as much effort as is required to achieve group goals (i.e. the bare minimum).
When does Social Loafing occur the most?
When:
- The person believes that individual performance within the group is not monitored
- The task or the group has little value or meaning to the individual
- The person generally displays low motivation to strive for success and expects that group members will display high effort.
What is ‘Social Compensation’?
When you work harder in a group to compensate for the performance of other group members.
Describe ‘Group Polarization’
When a group of like-minded people discuss an issue, and the ‘average’ opinion of the group members shifts to become more extreme.
When does Group Polarization occur?
When the group members lean towards a more liberal or risky viewpoint to begin with. (i.e. twitter echochamber)
What is ‘Groupthink’?
The tendency of group members to suspend critical thinking in order to reach an amicable agreement.
Under what conditions is Groupthink most likely to occur?
When the group is:
- Is under high stress to reach a decision
- Is insulated from outside input
- Has a directive leader who promotes a personal agenda
- Has high cohesiveness, reflecting a spirit of closeness and ability to work well together.
How can Groupthink be mitigated?
When the leader:
1. Remains impartial during discussions
2. Encourages critical thinking
3. Brings in outsiders to offer their opinions
4. Divides the larger group into subgroups.
Requiring group members to critique each other.
Define Deindividuation
A loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited bahaviour.
What is the key factor that leads to deindividuation?
Anonymity to outsiders.
What is the mere exposure effect?
Repeated exposure to a stimulus makes it more appealing.
What is the matching effect?
We are most likely to end up with a partner whose level of physical attractiveness is close to our own.
What is Social Exchange Theory?
The idea that the course of a relationship is governed by rewards and costs that the partners experience.
What is the model/formula of Social Exchange Theory?
Rewards - costs = outcomes
What is the outcome compared to in Social Exchange Theory?
Comparison Level (satisfaction within relationship) Comparison Level for Alternatives (commitment to the relationship)
Describe the ‘Sexual Strategies Theory’?
Men and women have evolved their own unique sexual strategies (i.e. men pump and dump while women hypergamy.)
Describe the ‘Social Structure Theory’?
Men and women’s sexual attractions are shaped by society (women will stop finding money attractive as they enter the workforce)
What is the text books conclusion on the Sexual Strategy Theory?
That it is a bit extreme.
What are the four behaviors associated with poor relationship outcomes?
- Criticism
- Contempt
- Defensiveness
- Stone-walling
What does it mean to Ostracize someone?
To ignore or exclude them.
What does Ostracism result in?
Activation of the same areas of the brain that are associated with physical pain.
People form less favorable impressions of people who are…
unattractive.
Define prejudice.
Prejudice refers to a negative attitude towards people based on their membership in a group
Define discrimination
Discrimination refers to overt behavior that involves treating people unfairly based on the group to which they belong.
People express ______ prejudice, while hiding ______ prejudice.
Explicit
Implicit
What does an implicit association test measure?
Your implicit prejudice. Note that scores do not correlate with self reported, explicit bias.
What is the out-group homogeneity bias?
The tendency to view members of the out-groups as being more similar to one another than members of the in-groups are.
What is the central claim of Realistic Conflict Theory?
Competition for limited resources fosters prejudice.
Research suggests that prejudice is fueled more strongly by a perceived threat to ______ vs a perceived threat to _______
one’s in-group
oneself
Describe Social Identity Theory?
Prejudice stems from the need to enhance our own self-esteem.
Describe stereotype threat.
Stereotypes create self-consciousness among stereotyped group members and a fear that they will live up to other people’s stereotypes.
Equal Status Contact states that prejudice between people is most likely to be reduced when they:
- Engage in sustained close contact
- Have equal status
- Work to achieve a common goal
- Are supported by broader social norms
What is shooter bias?
The tendency to perceive a black person as reaching for a weapon (i.e. police brutality)
Describe the theory of Kin Selection?
Organisms are most likely to help others with whom they share the most genes, namely, their offspring and relatives.
What does the ‘Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis’ claim?
That altruism is produced by empathy - the ability to put oneself in the place of another.
What is Social Comparison?
Looking at the reactions of those around you to decide what you should do.
What is the Bystander Effect?
The presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each person’s tendency to help
What are the hereditary influences on aggression?
- Hypothalamus
- Amygdala
- Frontal Lobes
When does aggression increase?
When people can justify/rationalize it.
What is Social Agression?
Acts that establish dominance in a hierarchy among members of a species.
What is known to increase Social Agression?
Testosterone
Describe an Attribution of Intentionality.
Whether of not we respond aggressively largely depends on whether we interpret an offensive act as intentional
Describe the Freudian concept of Catharsis.
Performing an aggressive act discharged aggressive energy and temporarily reduces our impulse to be violent (Freud)
What is the Psychodynamic argument about violent media?
Violent media should reduce violent tendencies via catharsis.
What is the Cognitive argument about violent media?
Violent media should increase violent tendencies via exposure.
What theory surrounding violent media does evidence support?
The Cognitive theory (exposure causes desensitization)
