Social Flashcards
1
Q
The scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other individuals, or "social stimuli," is referred to as what?
A
Social
Psychology
2
Q
Kurt Lewin developed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which examined interaction patterns between the individual and the total environment, and posited that people typically move toward goals in the field that are satisfying and away from goals that are negative or threaten their needs.
A
Field Theory
(field = one’s
immediate
environment)
3
Q
Lewin’s Field Theory holds that conflict occurs
when forces directing one toward or away from
goals are opposite in direction and about equal in
strength. The 3 types of conflicts are ________,
which occurs when one is forced to choose
between 2 equally attractive goals, _______,
which occurs when one has to choose between 2
equally unattractive goals, and ________, which
occurs when one is both attracted to and
repelled by the same situation at the same time.
A
Approach-approach (e.g., person receives 2 equally attractive date requests for the same night); avoidance-avoidance (e.g., person does not like job, but only other option is unemployment); approach-avoidance (e.g., teen chooses to go to a party with knowledge he will be grounded for doing so)
4
Q
According to Field Theory, what are the typical response patterns to each of the 3 conflict situations discussed by Lewin?
A
Approach-approach = initial ambivalence, then
goal person chose to move toward becomes
more attractive and the other goal less attractive;
avoidance-avoidance = initially attempt to move
away from both goals- if that does not work,
person vacillates between the 2 goals until an
equilibrium is achieved; approach-avoidance =
person remains in field and eventually reaches a
stable equilibrium where approach and
avoidance forces are balanced
5
Q
The tendency to experience intrusive thoughts about an objective that was once pursued but left incomplete is referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and suggests that people are better able to remember uncompleted tasks than completed tasks.
A
The
Zeigarnik
Effect
6
Q
Bem's \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ posits that we develop self-concept by observing our own behavior similar to how we observe others' behavior and inferring what we think or how we feel based on such observations.
A
Self-Perception
Theory
7
Q
In support of self-perception theory, what study found that subjects who did not receive prior information regarding a drug's effect adopted the affect (either euphoric or angry) of a confederate?
A
Schacter’s
Epinephrine
Study
8
Q
Based on his epinephrine study findings, Schacter developed his \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which posits that to experience a specific emotion, one must first experience physiological arousal, and then must cognitively interpret that arousal- the reactions of others helps in this interpretation process.
A
Two-factor
theory of
emotion
9
Q
A child who once enjoyed learning new things, yet developed an aversion to academics after she started school where her learning was rewarded with grades exemplifies what?
A
Overjustification Hypothesis: Rewarding a person for an activity they enjoy undermines their genuine interest in the activity, thereby diminishing the activity's inherent enjoyability
10
Q
A person who engages in an activity of genuine interest is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ motivated, whereas behavior done to receive a reward such as money or accolades is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ motivated.
A
Intrinsically;
extrinsically
11
Q
What theory suggests that, due to our drive to evaluate our own opinions and abilities, we evaluate ourselves by comparing ourselves to similar others when we feel uncertain about our abilities or opinions?
A
Social
Comparison
Theory
12
Q
According to social comparison theory, when are people most likely to make downward comparisons, such as comparing oneself to others who are inferior, less successful, or less fortunate?
A
When one feels threatened, when a negative characteristic is subject to evaluation, and in people with low self-esteem
13
Q
The idea that people would rather be known and understood by others according to their own self-concept, regardless of whether their self-concept is positive or negative, is asserted by what theory?
A
Self-Verification
Theory (suggests
we’d rather be
right than happy)
14
Q
TRUE or FALSE: Depressed people tend to seek more negative feedback and rejection from others.
A
TRUE: Research supports self-verification theory's position that people seek confirmation of their self-concept, even if it is negative and exacerbates symptoms
15
Q
This theory is concerned with the ways in which people perceive and think about the behaviors of themselves or others, exploring how people attempt to make inferences about the causes of observed behavior.
A
Attribution
Theory
16
Q
The tendency to overestimate the role of personal factors while underestimating the impact of situational factors when attempting to understand or explain the behavior of others is referred to as what?
A
Fundamental Attribution Error (e.g., a person cuts me off and I immediately assume he is a jerk without considering situational factors, such as disruptive children or car problems)
17
Q
TRUE or FALSE: Just as we are prone to the fundamental attribution error when explaining others' behavior, so too are we prone when explaining our own behavior.
A
FALSE: While the focus is more on personal attributions when explaining the behavior of others, we are more likely to make situational attributions when explaining our own behavior (referred to as the Actor-Observer Effect)
18
Q
While the actor-observer effect tends to hold true when explaining personal failures, successful behaviors usually lead to a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, whereby one is more likely to make dispositional (personal) rather than situational attributions.
A
Self-serving
bias
19
Q
What are the 3 original and 2 additional dimensions to Weiner's taxonomy in his Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion?
A
Original: internal/external, stable/unstable, controllable/uncontrollable; Additional: intentional/unintentional, global/specific
20
Q
This term refers to a person's belief about the causes of good and bad results in her life; a person with a high \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ one believes that her behavior is guided by fate or luck, while a person with a high \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ believes her behavior is a product of her own decisions and efforts.
A
Locus of
control;
external;
internal
21
Q
A person who hears about another person being mugged and immediately assumes tha person did something to deserve such treatment exemplifies what notion first hypothesized by Lerner?
A
The Just-World Hypothesis, which refers to the human tendency to want to believe the world is just so strongly that otherwise inexplicable injustices are rationalized by blaming the victim
22
Q
According to Derald Sue, locus of control and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ intersect to create 4 possible worldviews that are largely influenced by a person's racial and ethnic identity.
A
Locus of
responsibility
23
Q
According to Sue, people with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ control and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ responsibility view successes and failures as due to their own efforts and abilities; common in dominant US culture; may hinder a therapist's capacity to understand their minority client's worldview.
A
Internal;
internal
24
Q
According to Sue, people with ________
control and ________ responsibility
recognize their ability to shape their own
lives, though acknowledge some external
barriers exist (e.g., discrimination); clients
with this worldview are more likely to be
active in therapy and expect the therapist
to be equally as active.
A
Internal;
external
25
```
According to Sue, people with ________
control and ________ responsibility are
typically marginalized and feel they have
little influence over their fate, largely as a
result of personal faults rather than
discrimination or racism; as clients,
people with this worldview should be
reminded of the political forces
contributing to their dilemma.
```
External;
| internal
26
```
According to Sue, people with
________ control and ________
responsibility feel powerless over
their lives and blame outside forces
(e.g., government) for it; as clients,
people with this worldview are
helped by being taught new coping
strategies and receiving validation
for who they are.
```
External;
| external
27
```
A political TV commentator who
makes the claim that "most
Americans" agree with him on a
particular issue, despite a lack
of evidence, could be said to be
engaging in what
phenomenon?
```
```
False Consensus Bias
(Effect), which refers to
one's tendency to project
his own beliefs/feelings
onto other people and
assume they are shared
```
28
```
According to Asch, certain
personality characteristics,
which he called ________,
seem to imply more about
a person than other
characteristics (e.g.,
warm-cold).
```
Central
| traits
29
```
If Person A is provided a list of
traits about Person B, with the
beginning traits being more
positive and the traits at the
end of the list more negative,
what type of impression is
Person B most likely to leave
on Person A?
```
```
Positive, based on the primacy
effect, which states that initial
characteristics leave the
strongest impression
(regardless of whether they are
positive or negative), unless the
presentation of the conflicting
descriptions is interrupted
```
30
```
This is the tendency to
weigh negative
information more than
positive information
when evaluating others.
```
Trait
negativity
bias
31
```
The tendency to search
for or interpret
information in a way that
confirms one's
preconceptions is
referred to as what?
```
Confirmation
| bias
32
```
Exemplifying confirmation
bias, what did Rosenhan's
pseudopatient study reveal
when 8 mentally healthy
confederates admitted
themselves into a mental
hospital?
```
```
While real patients were able to
recognize that the
pseudopatients were not
mentally ill, psychiatrists and
staff members did not,
illustrating that we tend to view
reality in terms of our own
beliefs and impressions about it
```
33
```
This phenomenon occurs when
a person's expectations about
the behavior of themselves or
others leads to fulfillment of
those expectations due to
positive feedback between
belief and behavior.
```
```
Self-fulfilling prophecy
(aka Pygmalion Effect
based on Rosenthal's
and Jacobson's
research)
```
34
```
A ________ is a cognitive belief that
ascribes certain traits to specific groups
of people; ________ refers to negative
feelings about people based exclusively
on their group membership; ________
occurs when behavior is directed against
people due to their affiliation with a
specific group.
```
Stereotype;
prejudice;
discrimination
35
```
The belief that men are
more independent,
assertive, and dominant
while woman are sensitive,
dependent, warm, and
people-oriented is a good
example of what?
```
Gender
role
stereotype
36
```
TRUE or FALSE: Prejudice,
being largely determined by
cultural and social forces, is
effectively addressed by the
implementation of interventions
such as anti-discrimination laws
(e.g., affirmative action).
```
```
FALSE: Such interventions
will not have an immediate
impact due to prejudice
being so sternly
internalized, though overt
behaviors may change
```
37
```
According to Adorno et al., the ________
is characterized by rigidity in thought,
conventionality, submissiveness to
authority, sexual inhibition, and
intolerance of those who are different;
those characterized this way were
typically raised by domineering parents
who used harsh disciplinary measures.
```
Authoritarian
(prejudiced)
personality
38
```
Based on this theory, prejudice and
discrimination are a product of
one's drive to enhance his own
self-esteem, which is done by
believing one's own group (the
in-group) is attractive while
lambasting members of other
groups (the out-group).
```
Social
Identity
Theory
39
```
Findings from Sherif's Robber's
Cave Study revealed that, while
prejudice, racism, and
discrimination are difficult to
address, the introduction of
________ seems to be
effective in attenuating
intergroup hostility.
```
```
Superordinate goals,
or goals that are
shared and require
cooperation between
different groups
```
40
```
Children learning in what type of an
environment, where material is
divided into subtopics and each
student is responsible for learning
and teaching one subtopic to other
students, tend to be less
prejudiced, like school more, and
have higher self-esteem?
```
Jigsaw
| Classroom
41
```
The ________ posits that relations
between members of hostile groups can
be improved by the members being in
direct contact, so long as (1) both groups
are of equal status, (2) both groups work
toward a common goal (superordinate
goal), (3) there is personal contact
between the groups, and (4) social norms
encourage cooperation, equality, and
intergroup contact.
```
Contact
| Hypothesis
42
```
In his research on affiliation, Schachter
demonstrated that people experiencing
the expectation of something unpleasant
were more likely to want to be with
others, suggesting affiliation serves to
reduce anxiety. This led Schachter to
conclude ________, which has become a
common idiom.
```
Misery loves
(miserable)
company
43
```
TRUE or FALSE: In
situations where survival
is at issue, people seem
to prefer to affiliate with
others in similar
situations (e.g., cancer).
```
```
FALSE: While "misery
loves company"
appears true typically,
this does not seem so in
cases where survival is
at issue
```
44
```
The ________ effect
suggests that attraction can
be increased simply by being
closer in proximity to
someone/something, due
primarily to repeated contact.
```
Mere
| exposure
45
```
The erroneous conclusion
that a person possesses a
variety of desirable
characteristics based
solely on her physical
attractiveness is referred
to as what?
```
What-is-beautiful-is-good
| bias
46
```
What are the 7
main variables
related to
interpersonal
attractiveness?
```
```
Physical proximity,
similarity,
complementarity, physical
attractiveness,
self-disclosure, reciprocity,
and costs-and-benefits
```
47
```
In her ________ model, Berscheid
proposes that positive and negative
emotions usually arise in a relationship
when one partner's behavior disconfirms
the other partner's expectations (e.g.,
husband unexpectedly cleans the house
= positive emotion in wife; wife abruptly
stops making nightly dinner = negative
emotion in husband).
```
Emotion-In-Relationships
| ERM
48
```
What term refers to the
reduced likelihood that a
bystander will help a
person in need as the
number of other
bystanders increases?
```
Bystander
| apathy
49
The 3 psychological factors involved in bystander
apathy include ________, referring to one's
failure to feel responsible to help due to the
assumption that other bystanders will help;
________, referring to one's propensity to take
cues from others as to what behavior is
appropriate for the situation (e.g., if no one else
is helping, help must not be needed); and
________, referring to one's fear that taking
action might be embarrassing or lead to social
disapproval.
```
Diffusion of
responsibility;
social influence;
evaluation
apprehension
```
50
```
In this "non-zero-sum" game, two people
role-play being suspects in a crime and
are given 2 alternatives during separate
interrogations- either confess or remain
silent. If one confesses and the other
remains silent, the confessor receives
immunity and the other receives severe
punishment. If both confess, both receive
severe punishment, while if both remain
silent, both receive minimal punishment.
```
```
The Prisoner's Dilemma:
Research has revealed that
players tend to confess in the
hope of beating out the other
person; however, since they
both confess, they both lose
```
51
```
A wrestler attempting to win a
match is engaging in ________
aggression, as the behavior is a
means to some other end, while a
husband who batters his wife is
engaging in ________ aggression,
which is characterized by venting of
negative emotion.
```
Instrumental;
| hostile
52
```
TRUE or FALSE: Children
are more likely to imitate
the aggressive behavior of
adults who are important,
powerful, successful, liked,
or familiar.
```
```
TRUE: This is true
whether the child
witnesses the
aggression live (e.g.,
parents) or filmed (e.g.,
television programs)
```
53
```
The idea that frustration
always leads to
aggression, and that
aggression is always
preceded by frustration is
referred to as the
________.
```
Frustration-Aggression
| Hypothesis
54
```
According to the
frustration-aggression
hypothesis, what occurs when
aggression is withheld out of
either fear of punishment or
lack of access to the source of
the frustration?
```
```
It will be displaced onto
another target (e.g., a
mother with unexpressed
anger toward her boss
becomes aggressive with
her children)
```
55
```
The idea that participating
in or witnessing
aggressive behavior
actually reduces one's
propensity to engage in
other aggressive acts
stems from what theory?
```
```
Catharsis Theory (Model): No
empirical evidence supports
this theory and it appears
witnessing or engaging in
aggressive acts may actually
increase one's inclination
toward aggressive behavior
```
56
```
TRUE or FALSE: People
appear to be more inclined
to act aggressively when
the temperature is high
and less likely when the
temperature is cooler.
```
```
TRUE: Research
indicates more
violent crimes occur
when it is warm, less
when it is cool
```
57
```
When a person who would not
usually behave violently in his
individual interactions becomes
uncharacteristically violent and
aggressive due to the influence
of a crowd, what psychological
phenomenon is likely at play?
```
```
Deindividuation, or
one's loss of a
personal sense of
individuality (sense
of anonymity)
```
58
```
The ________ occurs
when, in darkness, a
stationary point of
light appears to move
in various directions.
```
Autokinetic
| Effect
59
```
________ conformity is when a person
uses others' behavior as a source of
accurate information, in order to avoid
making a mistake, especially when she is
unsure of her accuracy; ________
conformity is when a person's behavior is
swayed by his desire to avoid criticism
and be accepted by the group.
```
Informational;
| normative
60
```
What factors usually
contribute to a single
person influencing and
changing the opinions or
behaviors of a large
group?
```
1) Minority's position is consistent;
2) Minority not perceived as rigid,
psychologically imbalanced, or
biased; 3) Minority must not waver
in support of their position; 4)
Minority is not a member of a
familiar social group arguing in
favor of that group's interests
61
```
The concept of ________
suggests a person must
conform to a group and be
seen as a "competent
insider" before they can
effectively make changes
or deviate from the norm.
```
```
Idiosyncrasy Credits: These
are "accumulated" as one
becomes an accepted group
member; the more one has,
the more effective her
attempts at
change/leadership will be
```
62
```
An adolescent reacting to his
parents demands to "be home
before 10pm" by staying out
until 10:30pm, due to the threat
against his freedom to choose,
exemplifies what phenomenon?
```
Psychological
| reactance
63
```
Generally, the difference
between conformity and
compliance is that the former
involves adhering to ________
group norms while the latter
involves agreeing to ________
requests.
```
Implicit;
| explicit
64
```
What compliance technique involves first
making small requests (e.g., "can you
pick up a gallon of milk?") then moving to
larger requests of a similar nature (e.g.,
"could you do my grocery shopping?"),
whereby the person receiving the
requests complies because he wants his
behavior to remain consistent?
```
Foot-in-the-door
| technique
65
```
This compliance technique involves
first making an unreasonably large
request (e.g., "will you pay my
rent?") that is expected to be
denied, followed by a smaller more
reasonable request (e.g., "can I
borrow $10?"), which is more often
accepted.
```
Door-in-the-face
| technique
66
```
Usually utilized by shoddy used car
salespeople, ________ occurs
when an agreement is secured with
a request, then the size of the
request is increased by revealing its
hidden costs; research indicates it
is an effective technique.
```
Low-balling
67
```
In Milgram's classic study on
obedience to authority, a group of
psychiatrists initially predicted only
________% of subjects would
administer shocks at the highest
voltage, when in reality ________%
surprisingly went all the way to the
"fatal" level.
```
1; 65
68
```
This term refers to
one's ability to
influence others
and resist others'
influence.
```
Social
| power
69
The bases of social power defined by French
and Raven include ________, resulting from
one's ability to reward others; ________,
resulting from one's ability to punish others;
________, a result of valid authority in a certain
situation; ________, occurring when one desires
acceptance from the holder of power; and
________, which occurs when the holder of
power is believed to have special knowledge or
expertise.
Reward;
coercive;
legitimate;
referent; expert
70
```
What two "bases of
power," when
combined, are
characteristic of the
most effective style of
leadership?
```
Referent
power and
expert power
71
```
________ is the tendency
for people to perform
________ on simple tasks
and ________ on complex
tasks when in the
presence of others.
```
Social
facilitation;
better; worse
72
```
A group of college students are
allowed to a test together,
which leads to some of the
students working less hard than
others and contributing little to
the test. This is an example of
what phenomenon?
```
```
Social loafing,
whereby individual
output declines when
people are working
together in a group
```
73
```
How might one
approach reducing or
eliminating the
possibility of social
loafing occurring during
a group task?
```
```
Inform participants that
their individual
contributions are either
identifiable or uniquely
necessary for the group
to succeed
```
74
```
The tendency for people
in a group to make
decisions that are more
extreme than their
original positions is
referred to as what?
```
```
Group polarization
(aka "risky shift" if
the shift in position
is in the risky
direction)
```
75
```
What term refers to the type of
thought exhibited by group
members attempting to minimize
conflict and reach concurrence
without critically testing, analyzing,
or evaluating ideas, thereby leading
to decisions that are often
irrational?
```
Groupthink
76
```
This is a group decision-making
technique in which all group
members are asked to
generate and share all creative
solutions to a particular
problem, regardless of how
eccentric the ideas may be.
```
Brainstorming
77
```
TRUE or FALSE: People
working alone tend to
produce more ideas with
better quality than when
brainstorming in a group?
```
TRUE: This
position is
supported by
research
78
The 4 types of classification of group tasks are
________, where the group product is the sum of
all members' contributions; ________, where the
poorest performance of 1 member determines
the group product; ________, where the group
product is determined by the single best
performance; and ________, where the
performance of the average member determines
the group product.
```
Additive tasks;
conjunctive tasks;
disjunctive tasks;
compensatory
tasks
```
79
```
________ is a third-party
intervention that occurs when
individuals or groups cannot reach
an agreement; ________, while
similar to the former, consists of the
third-party strongly recommending
or dictating a final agreement that
the disputants will abide by.
```
Mediation;
| arbitration
80
```
TRUE or FALSE: Attitudes
and behavior are strongly
correlated (e.g., people
very frequently behave in
ways consistent with their
stated attitudes)?
```
FALSE: Research
suggests attitudes
and behavior are
weakly correlated
81
```
A ________ is an indication
of one's readiness to perform
a given behavior, based on
attitude toward the behavior,
subjective norm, and
perceived behavioral control.
```
Behavioral
| intention
82
```
When a person engages in a
behavior that is inconsistent with
her held beliefs, and the justification
for performing such behavior is
insufficient, she is likely to
experience a shift in attitude about
the behavior. This process is
referred to as what?
```
Cognitive
| Dissonance
83
```
This theory posits that humans desire
consistency between attitudes and
feelings toward others, and should there
be inconsistency, one will seek balance
by either changing his attitude (if the
other person is liked) or changing his
feelings toward the other person (if the
other person is disliked).
```
Heider's
Balance
Theory
84
```
The phenomenon that
occurs when a message
from a low-credibility
source increases
persuasiveness over time
is referred to as what?
```
The
Sleeper
Effect
85
```
Persuasive
communications that elicit
fear in a target audience,
while typically ineffective,
can be helpful under what
conditions?
```
```
When instructions
are provided on
how to avoid the
feared
consequence
```
86
```
This is the process of providing
information to a person/people prior to
the communication process with the
intent of making the person/people more
resistant to the message to be
communicated (e.g., political talk-show
hosts that provide weak arguments for
the other side's position before the
listeners encounter the full presentation).
```
Inoculation
| Theory
87
```
TRUE or FALSE: People
with low self-esteem will
typically show more
attitude change following a
persuasive message than
people with high
self-esteem?
```
```
TRUE: Persuasive
messages seem to
have a larger impact
on people with lower
self-esteem
```
88
```
According to ________, a "central route"
to persuasion occurs when a person
carefully considers the contents of a
message, whereas a "peripheral route"
occurs when an argument's content is not
carefully considered and the focus is on
other cues (e.g., perceived source
credibility, attractiveness of source,
catchy slogans).
```
Elaboration
Likelihood
Model
89
```
The study of the
effect of the physical
environment on
behavior is referred
to as what?
```
Environmental
Psychology (or
Ecological
Psychology)
90
```
TRUE or FALSE:
Women tend to be
more sensitive to
and stressed in
crowded situations.
```
```
FALSE: While some studies
support the opposite notion,
that men are more sensitive
to crowding, the research is
largely inconclusive (on the
test, choose the most
appropriate response)
```
91
```
What are some
characteristics of people
who tend to require
greater personal space
(the physical distance
maintained between one
person and another)?
```
```
Low self-esteem and
high authoritarianism;
Americans; male,
though research
findings are inconsistent
```
92
```
Research has shown
that the 2 most
damaging aspects of
noise stress are
________ and
________.
```
```
Unpredictability (when
noise occurs without
warning);
uncontrollability (when
nothing can be done
about the noise)
```
93
```
What popular childhood
activity has consistently
been linked to increased
aggressive behavior and
tolerance for
aggression?
```
```
Viewing television,
which also
reinforces
traditional sex-role
stereotypes
```
94
```
Juries with less
than how many
people are more
likely to convict a
defendant?
```
```
12, due to the
lower chance of
the jury containing
more than 1
dissenter
```
95
```
In a courtroom setting,
what is true about the
presentation of graphic
evidence (e.g.,
gruesome photos) in
terms of the jurors?
```
```
It lowers jurors'
standards of proof
(amount of evidence
needed to make a
decision) and elicits
pro-prosecution biases
```
96
```
According to the literature,
what is the only situation in
which a criminal's physical
attractiveness has been
shown to lead to harsher
treatment?
```
```
When physical
attractiveness is used to
aid in the commission of a
crime; physically attractive
criminals are otherwise
treated with greater
leniency
```
97
```
The process whereby additional
information from something
observed becomes integrated
into one's memory of the
original event, regardless of
accuracy, is referred to as
what?
```
Reconstructive
memory (E.
Loftus)
98
```
The ________ behavior pattern
is characterized by competitive
striving for achievement,
hostility, aggression, and a
sense of time urgency;
research has linked this
behavior pattern with coronary
heart disease.
```
Type A
99
```
The buffer hypothesis (or
effect) states that an individual
is protected against the harmful
effects of heightened stress on
physical health when high
levels of ________ are present.
```
Perceived
social
support
100
```
According to the ________, perceived
susceptibility (of contracting an illness),
perceived severity (of an illness if treated
or untreated), perceived benefits (of
health plan/treatment), and perceived
barriers (e.g., side-effects, time
consuming) contribute to a person's
decision to utilize preventive disease
measures and screening tests.
```
Health
Belief
Model
101
```
Research has indicated
that ________ are the
most influential variables
for predicting and
explaining health-related
behaviors.
```
Perceived
| barriers
