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*EPPP > Research and Statistics > Flashcards

Research and Statistics Flashcards

1
Q 
This experimental
research variable is the
one that is manipulated
by the researcher; it is
sometimes referred to
as the "input variable."
A

Independent

variable

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2
Q 
In experimental research,
the hypothesis can usually
be stated: changes in the
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ will be caused
by changes in the
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Dependent
variable;
independent
variable

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3
Q 
Referred to as the
"outcome variable," it is
hypothesized to change as
a result of particular
manipulations of the input
variable in experimental
research.
A

Dependent

variable

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4
Q 
In correlational research,
independent variables are often
termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to
differentiate them from
variables that can be
manipulated, and dependent
variables are referred to as
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Predictor;

criterion

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5
Q 
What term is used to denote
the values a research
variable, most often the
independent variable, could
take (e.g., placebo only,
placebo + treatment,
treatment only)?
A

Levels (of

a variable)

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6
Q 
In what type of research
design are all levels of
one independent
variable combined with
all levels of another
independent variable?
A 
Factorial design (if
one IV has 3 levels
and the other has 2, it
would be called a 3 x
2 factorial design)
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7
Q 
A study is said to have
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ validity when a
causal relationship is
determined to exist
between the independent
and dependent variables.
A

Internal

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8
Q 
TRUE or FALSE: A
study in which no
significant effect of the
independent variable is
found will always have
no internal validity.
A 
FALSE: It will have
internal validity if the
conclusion is that
the IV has no causal
effect on the DV
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9
Q 
Poor internal validity in a study
is the result of numerous
possible extraneous variables,
typically called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
variables, that might explain the
change in the dependent
variable.
A

Confounding
(or
confound)

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10
Q 
What is the single best
way for a researcher to
ensure internal validity
when conducting an
experiment?
A 
Treat all "levels" of the
IV with equivalence
(equally) in every
respect, except for
their IV status
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11
Q

Regarding confounding variables effecting change in the
DV, ________ is a result of biological or psychological
change in the research subjects; ________ is a result of
one’s prior experience with a test; ________ might occur
when there have been changes in the measuring instrument
(e.g., psychologists gets better at diagnosing); ________ is
caused by pre-existing factors in the research subjects
(e.g., higher IQs); and ________ is the result of people who
drop-out of one research group systematically differ from
those who stay in the study.

A 
Maturation; testing;
instrumentation;
selection;
differential
mortality
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12
Q 
This term is used to describe the
tendency for a test subject who
initially produced extreme scores on
a measure to score closer to the
mean on subsequent testings; it
has an effect on internal validity
when extreme scorers are used as
research subjects.
A

Statistical

regression

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13
Q 
Changes in the behavior of
test subjects (DV) that is
more a function of the
expectations of the
experimenter as opposed to
the independent variables is
referred to as what?
A

The
Rosenthal
effect

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14
Q 
This is likely the best technique
for ensuring internal validity, as
it distributes all extraneous
subject characteristics equally
to all research groups, thereby
reducing the likelihood of
confounded results.
A 
Random
assignment (or
randomization)
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15
Q 
Random \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs after study
subjects have already been selected to
participate and refers to the equal
probability of being assigned to a group,
whereas random \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs prior
to starting the study and refers to a
method whereby all members of a
population have an equal chance of
being chosen to participate in a study.
A

Assignment;
selection (or
sampling)

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16
Q

Experimenters are interested in measuring the
effect that different treatment modalities (IV)
have on relapse rates for alcoholics; however,
there is concern that the duration of each
subject’s alcohol use may confound the results.
The researchers decide to split the subjects
based on their duration of use, then randomly
assign them to treatment groups. This is an
example of what technique to increase internal
validity?

A

Matching

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17
Q 
What technique for ensuring
internal validity involves
essentially making the
confound variable another
independent variable, allowing
the researcher to separate the
effects of each variable?
A

Blocking

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18
Q 
This statistical strategy for
increasing internal validity involves
adjusting DV scores after the data
has been analyzed so that subjects
statuses are equalized on 1 or more
variables; it is similar to matching,
only it is performed post-hoc.
A

Analysis of
Covariance
(ANCOVA)

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19
Q 
If the results of a study
can be generalized to
other settings and
situations, it would be
said to have high
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

External

validity

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20
Q 
When the effects of a given
treatment are not generalizable
to other members of the target
population, it can be said that
there is an interaction between
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Selection;

treatment

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21
Q 
When the result of a study
performed in the 1920s
does not apply to the
population in 2010, there
is an interaction between
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

History;

treatment

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22
Q 
An interaction between
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
occurs when the results of a
study where pretests were
used do not generalize to
cases in which pretests were
not used.
A

Testing;

treatment

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23
Q 
What is the term used to
describe the phenomenon
where research participants
form an interpretation of the
experiment's purpose and,
consequently, unconsciously
change their behavior or
responses accordingly?
A

Demand

characteristics

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24
Q 
A research subject who
behaves differently merely
due to the fact that she are
aware of her participation
in an experiment
exemplifies what threat to
external validity?
A

The
Hawthorne
Effect

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25
Q 
In studies where the same subjects
are exposed to more than 1
treatment (called repeated
measures design), there is a risk
that external validity will be
decreased as a result of the
influence of the multiple treatments,
thereby reducing generalizability.
This is referred to as what?
A 
Order effects,
carryover effects,
or multiple
treatment
interference
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26
Q 
A good way of increasing external
validity, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ensures that all
members of a population have an
equal chance of being selected to
participate in the research, and
thereby produces results that
accurately represent the whole
population (it is generalizable).
A 
Random
sampling (or
selection)
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27
Q 
This procedure involves taking
a random sample from each of
numerous subgroups of the
total target population, thus
ensuring proportionate
representation of the defined
population subgroups in the
study.
A

Stratified
random
sampling

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28
Q 
While a threat to internal
validity, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
research increases
external validity by
observing subjects'
behavior in a real-life
setting.
A

Naturalistic

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29
Q 
In contrast to naturalistic
research, which has high
external and low internal
validity, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
research tends to have
higher internal and lower
external validity.
A 
Analogue
(research
performed in more
laboratory-like
setting)
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30
Q 
A \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ study involves the
subjects lacking awareness of the
purpose of the experiment and the
treatment they have been assigned
to; in a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ study, both the
subjects and the experimenters lack
awareness of the group subjects
have been assigned to.
A

Single-blind;

double-blind

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31
Q 
One way of controlling
for order effects is to
administer treatment to
groups of subjects in a
different order, which is
referred to as what?
A

Counterbalancing

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32
Q 
What counterbalancing
technique orders the
administration of
treatment so that each
appears only once in
every position?
A

Latin
square
design

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33
Q 
The defining feature of a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
experiment is that subjects are
randomly assigned to different
groups; in contrast, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
experiments are performed when it
is impossible to randomly assign
subjects to groups (e.g., intact
groups of subjects).
A

True;

quasi

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34
Q 
In this type of research,
variables of interest are not
manipulated, there is no
internal validity, results are
typically used for the purposes
of prediction, and associative
rather than causative
relationships are discussed.
A

Correlational

research

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35
Q 
What type of research
is used to address
variables as a function
of time, such as aging
or maturation?
A

Developmental

research

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36
Q 
The 3 types of developmental
research are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (same
people studied over a long period of
time), \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (different groups of
subjects who are divided by age are
assessed at the same time), and
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (representative samples
of different age groups are
assessed on 2 or more occasions).
A 
Longitudinal;
cross-sectional;
cross-sequential (which
is a combination of the
first 2)
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37
Q 
In cross-sectional
research, what term
describes the observed
differences between
different age groups that
are more a function of
experience than age?
A

Cohort (or
intergenerational)
effect

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38
Q 
Longitudinal research tends to
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ true age-related
change (due to drop-out of
less-abled subjects and
practice effects), while
cross-sectional tends to
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ true age-related
change (due to cohort effects).
A

Underestimate;

overestimate

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39
Q 
This type of research design
consists of taking multiple
measurements over time in order to
assess the effects of an
independent variable; the series of
measurements on the dependent
variable is interrupted by
administration of the treatment.
A

Interrupted
time-series
design

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40
Q 
In \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ designs, which work
well for research on behavior
modification, one subject serves as
his/her own control; behavior
(dependent variable) is analyzed
numerous times during a baseline
phase where there is no treatment,
then again during a treatment
phase (independent variable).
A

Single-subject

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41
Q

Of the 3 single-subject designs, a/an ________
involves collecting data from a single baseline
phase and a single treatment phase; in a/an
________, data is collected after the treatment
phase has stopped and, if the behavior returns,
there is a higher chance the change was due to
treatment; and ________ involves applying
treatment sequentially and measuring the DV
after each application, rather than removing
treatment (this is used primarily when removing
treatment would be unethical).

A 
AB design;
reversal
(withdrawal)
design; multiple
baseline design
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42
Q 
What 2 reversal designs involve
(1) collecting data at a third
non-treatment/baseline phase
and (2) re-administering
treatment for a second time,
collecting data, and comparing
the results to the first treatment
phase?
A

(1) ABA
design; (2)
ABAB design

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43
Q 
In \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ research, theories are
derived from the gathered data rather
than developed prior to the experiment;
methods for collecting data include
surveys (e.g., personal interviews,
phone/mail surveys), case studies, and
protocol analysis (collecting and
analyzing word-for-word reports from
subjects).
A

Qualitative,
or
descriptive

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44
Q 
The two types of statistical methods
are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ statistics, which are
used to quantitatively describe the
main features data collected from a
sample, and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ statistics,
which are used to make inferences
regarding some unknown aspect of
a population based on sample data.
A

Descriptive;

inferential

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45
Q

Identify which of the 4 scales of
measurement would be used for each of
the following variables: (1) IQ scores or
scores on most standardized tests, (2)
diagnostic category, (3) the length of time
(in minutes) it takes to complete a task,
and (4) rankings of one’s preferences of
listed therapist characteristics.

A

(1) Interval, (2)
nominal, (3)
ratio, and (4)
ordinal

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46
Q 
What is the only
difference between
interval and ratio
scales of
measurement?
A 
Ratio variables have an absolute
zero point (e.g., distance, height,
weight, time); interval variables
have no absolute zero, so negative
values can be used, and ratios are
arbitrary- values cannot be
multiplied or divided (e.g., IQ
scores, temperature)
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47
Q 
What descriptive statistic would
be used if a researcher was
interested in simply showing a
summarized grouping of data
she has collected, organized by
the number of cases that fall
within a given range or
category?
A 
Frequency distribution,
which are often
displayed on a bar
graph (histogram), table
graph, or polygon
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48
Q

A bell-curve exemplifies a ________ distribution,
which is symmetrical due to half of the scores
falling above the mean and half falling below the
mean; a ________ distribution occurs when the
majority of scores fall on the high end of the
scale (e.g., test was too easy), leaving a long tail
on the left; a ________ distribution occurs when
most scores fall on the low end of the scale (e.g.,
test was too difficult), leaving a long tail on the
right.

A 
Normal; negatively;
positively (hint: "the tail
tells the tale," so
whatever end the tail is
on determines the
labeling)
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49
Q

What are the 3
most common
measures of
central tendency?

A

Mean,
median,
and mode

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50
Q

The ________ is determined by dividing the sum
of all values by the number of cases/scores (or
N), providing the most useful measure of central
tendency (MCT) for normal distributions; the
________ is the middle value when data is
ordered from lowest to highest, making it less
sensitive to extreme scores than the prior MCT
and thus more useful with skewed distributions;
the ________ is the most frequent value in a
data set (can have more than one).

A

Mean;
median;
mode

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51
Q 
How is the median
calculated when
there are an even
number of cases in
the data set?
A

Take the
mean of the 2
middle values

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52
Q 
In a negatively skewed
distribution, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ >
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ > \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_;
in a positively skewed
distribution \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ >
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ > \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A 
Mode > median >
mean; mean > median
> mode (hint: mean is
always closer to the
tail)
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53
Q 
What are the 3
most common
measures of
variability (or
dispersion)?
A

Range,
variance, and
standard
deviation

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54
Q 
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is determined by simply
subtracting the lowest score for the
highest score in a data set, which limits
its usefulness; the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is used by
many statistical tests in their formulas
and it measures a distribution's
variability; the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, in simple terms,
shows how much variation there is from
the mean.
A

Range;
variance;
standard
deviation

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55
Q 
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the
square of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_,
which means the
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the square
root of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Variance; standard
deviation; standard
deviation; variance

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56
Q 
This type of transformed score
measures the amount of standard
deviations a raw score is from the
mean; once all raw scores have
been converted, the distribution has
a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 1, permitting
comparisons across different
measures/tests.
A

Z-score

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57
Q 
TRUE or FALSE: When
raw scores are
transformed into
z-scores, the shape of
the distribution stays the
same.
A 
TRUE: When score
transformation does not
change distribution
shape, it is called "linear
transformation"
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58
Q 
What transformed
score has a mean of
50 and a standard
deviation of 10 (e.g.,
MMPI-2)?
A

T-score

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59
Q 
This type of transformed
score divides a
distribution into 9 equal
intervals with a mean of
5 and a standard
deviation of 2.
A

Stanine scores
(shortened form
of STAndard
NINE)

60
Q 
Expressed as the percentage
of individuals in a standardized
group scoring below an
individual's raw score,
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are often helpful
when providing feedback from
intelligence and psychological
tests.
A

Percentile

ranks

61
Q 
Percentile ranks will
always have a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
distribution, meaning that
within a given range of
percentile ranks, there will
always be the same
number of scores.
A

Flat (aka
rectangular
or uniform)

62
Q 
TRUE or FALSE: When
raw scores are
transformed into
percentile ranks, the
shape of the distribution
stays the same.
A 
FALSE: When score
transformation changes
distribution shape, it is
called "nonlinear
transformation"
63
Q 
In a normal distribution,
what percentage of scores
falls within -1 and +1
standard deviations of the
mean? Within -2 and +2?
Within -3 and +3?
A 
Approximately 68%,
95%, and 99% of scores
fall within -1 and +1, -2
and +2, and -3 and +3
standard deviations,
respectively
64
Q 
TRUE or FALSE: When
raw scores are
transformed into
z-scores, the shape of
the distribution stays the
same.
A 
TRUE: When score
ransformation does not
change distribution
hape, it is called "linear
transformation"
65
Q 
In a normal distribution,
a z-score of +1.0 is
equal to a percentile
rank of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and is
therefore the cutoff point
for the top \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A 
84; 16% (the same is true
for the converse- a z-score
of -1.0 has a percentile
rank of 16 and is therefore
the cutoff for the bottom
16%)
66
Q 
In a normal distribution,
a z-score of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
is equal to a percentile
rank of 98 and is
therefore the cutoff point
for the top \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A 
\+2.0; 2% (the same is
true for the converse- a
z-score of -2.0 has a
percentile rank of 2 and
is therefore the cutoff for
the bottom 2%)
67
Q 
The formula for a
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ involves
subtracting the sample
mean from the obtained
raw score, then dividing
that value by the standard
deviation.
A

Z-score

68
Q 
This term refers to the inaccuracies
that are a result of observing a
sample rather than the whole
population when using inferential
statistical methods; it is the
difference between the statistic
(sample value) and the parameter
(population value).
A

Sampling
error (or “error
of the mean”)

69
Q 
The extent to which a sample
mean can be expected to
deviate from its corresponding
population mean is referred to
as the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and is
calculated using the formula:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A 
Standard Error of the
Mean (SEM);
standard
deviation/square root
of N (N = sample size)
70
Q 
When calculating the
standard error of the
mean, what occurs as
the sample size (N)
becomes larger?
A 
Error becomes
smaller (there is an
inverse relationship
between sample
size and SEM)
71
Q 
The standard error of
the mean is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
proportional to the
standard deviation and
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ proportional
to the sample size.
A

Directly;

inversely

72
Q 
The difference between
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hypothesis testing
and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hypothesis
testing is that the former states
the hypothesis in theoretical
terms while the latter states the
hypothesis in terms that are
quantitatively testable.
A

Research;

statistical

73
Q 
The hypothesis that the
independent variable will have no
effect on the dependent variable is
called the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hypothesis,
while the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hypothesis
hypothesizes the independent
variable will have a significant effect
on the dependent variable.
A

Null (H1:
u1=u2);
alternative (H1:
u1/=u2)

74
Q 
The hypothesis that the implementation
of a certain OCD treatment program will
significantly reduce obsessions and
compulsive behaviors exemplifies a
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hypothesis, while the
hypothesis that a new therapy approach
will change the mean test scores of
patients with schizophrenia exemplifies a
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hypothesis.
A 
One-tailed (the direction
of the change is
hypothesized);
two-tailed (no direction
of change is
hypothesized)
75
Q

A ________ occurs when the null hypothesis is
rejected when it is true- basically, the researcher
finds a significant difference when in the
population no difference exists, creating a
“false-positive.” The ________ level refers to the
probability of making such an error and is usually
set at the .01 or .05 level, which means a
researcher would reject the null hypothesis if the
test indicates that there is a 1% or less or 5% or
less chance of the null hypothesis being true.

A

Type I
error; alpha
(p value)

76
Q 
The probability at
which a researcher
rejects the null
hypothesis as being
true is called what?
A 
The significance
level, usually
expressed "the
results were
significant (p < .01)"
77
Q 
On a graphical
representation, when
alpha level is changed
from .05 to .01, the
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ region gets
smaller and the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
region gets larger.
A 
Rejection (i.e., level at
which null hypothesis is
rejected); retention (i.e.,
level at which null
hypothesis is retained)
78
Q

A ________ occurs when the null hypothesis is
not rejected when it is false- basically, the
researcher finds no significant difference when in
the population a difference does exist, creating a
“false-negative.” ________ is the probability of
making such an error, while ________ refers to
probability of not making such an error (or, the
probability of rejecting the null when it is false).

A 
Type II error; beta;
power (refers to
"sensitivity of a
statistical test;"
equal to 1-beta)
79
Q 
While the power of a
statistical test is not known
prior to a study and usually
remains unknown, what
are some ways a
researcher can increase
power?
A 
Increase sample size,
increase the pre-set alpha
level, use a one-tailed
(directional) test, increase
the difference between
levels of the independent
variable
80
Q 
TRUE or FALSE: As the
probability of making a
Type I error increases, the
probability of making a
Type II error decreases,
and vice-versa.
A 
TRUE: Hence
researchers must
consider real-world
consequences of
making these errors
when setting alpha
81
Q

In research where the hypothesis is
counter-intuitive and contradicts previous
findings/theory, alpha should be set at ________
in order to reduce the chances of making a
________ error (remember “COLD FUSION”);
however, alpha should be set at ________ in
situations where making a ________ error might
have devastating effects (e.g., research on new
medicine to treat a life-threatening illness).

A

A lower value
(.01); Type I error;
a higher value
(.05); Type II error

82
Q 
The ANOVA and the t-test
are both examples of
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ tests, which are
used only for data
measured on \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ or
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ scales.
A

Parametric;
interval;
ratio

83
Q 
Parametric tests are based on
the assumptions of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
(dependent variable values are
normally distributed in the
population) and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
(variance of all research groups
is equal).
A

Normal
distribution;
homogeneity of
variance

84
Q 
Designed to test hypotheses based
on dependent variables measured
on a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ scale,
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ tests make no
assumption of distribution
("distribution free"), which can
decrease power, and include
chi-square and Mann-Whitney U.
A

Nominal;
ordinal;
nonparametric

85
Q 
What assumption
is shared by both
parametric and
nonparametric
tests?
A

Random
selection of
subjects from
the population

86
Q 
The probability of:
rejecting a true null
hypothesis = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_;
retaining a false null
hypothesis = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_;
rejecting a false null
hypothesis = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Alpha;
beta;
power

87
Q 
In determining whether to reject
or retain the null hypothesis,
the statistical value is
compared to a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_,
which is dependent on 1) the
pre-set alpha level and 2) the
degrees of freedom for the
statistical test used.
A

Critical

value

88
Q 
This statistic is used to test
whether there is a
significant difference
between 2 different
means; it cannot be used
to compare any more than
2 means.
A

t-Test (or
Student’s
t-test)

89
Q

A researcher wants to test the hypothesis that
children in a low-SES school district receive less
direct teacher contact than the national average
for children. The researcher learns from a recent
national survey that children receive an average
of 6 hours per week of direct contact with their
teacher; however, in her survey of children from
a low-SES district, the average was 2.5 hours
per week. What statistic would be used to
determine if significance exists?

A 
One sample t-test: used
to compare the mean of
a single sample to a
known population mean
(degrees of freedom = N
- 1)
90
Q

A researcher interested in studying the effects of
a novel therapeutic approach to improve social
function selects 100 people diagnosed with an
anxiety disorder. Subjects are randomly
assigned to either a group receiving the new
treatment or a group receiving CBT, referred to
as ________ samples. Data from a measure of
social function is collected following 12 weeks of
treatment. The researcher utilizes the ________
to test whether there is a significant difference
between the groups.

A

Independent; t-test
for independent
samples (degrees
of freedom = N - 2)

91
Q 
This test is used to compare
the means of samples that are
related to each other, such as
in a pretest-posttest design
where the same group of
subjects is measured before
and after treatment, then the
means compared.
A 
t-Test for correlated
samples (degrees of
freedom = N - 1,
where N = pairs of
scores)
92
Q

A researcher interested in determining whether
significant differences exist between 3 or more
independent groups on a single independent
variable would utilize a/an ________, yielding
a/an ________ statistic that would indicate
whether there was a difference in group means
without telling where the differences lie; should
the test yield significance, ________ tests can be
used to specify the differences.

A 
One-way ANOVA
(can be used with 2
groups, but usually
t-test is simpler);
F-ratio; post-hoc
93
Q 
The ANOVA statistic (F-ratio) is
based on a comparison of
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ variance and
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ variance, wherein
the greater the former is over
the latter, the greater the effec
of the treatment (independent
variable).
A

Between-group
(or treatment);
within-group (or
error)

94
Q 
The first step in determining
the F-ratio of a one-way
ANOVA involves calculating
the between-group and
within-group \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which
is a measure of variability of a
data set.
A

Sum of

Squares

95
Q 
For a one-way ANOVA,
degrees of
freedom-between = k - 1
where k equals \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_;
degrees of freedom-within
= N - k where N equals
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Number of
groups; total
number of
subjects

96
Q 
Between-group variance is estimated by
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is calculated by dividing
Sum of Squares-between by degrees of
freedom-between; similarly, within-group
variance is estimated by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ,
which is calculated by dividing Sum of
Squares-within by degrees of
freedom-within; the F-ratio is then
calculated by dividing \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ by
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A 
Mean Squares
Between (MSB);
Mean Squares
Within (MSW);
MSB; MSW
97
Q 
Should an F-ratio be
higher than the critical
value at a significance
level of .05, how will the
significance be indicated?
How about at the .01
level?
A 
A single asterisk
indicates significance at
the .05 level (p* < .05),
while 2 asterisks
indicate significance at
the .01 level (p** < .01)
98
Q 
Assuming a one-way ANOVA
produces significance, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
comparisons can help determine
where the differences lie; however,
when multiple comparisons are
conducted, the probability that a/an
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ will occur increases,
which is referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Post-hoc; Type I
error;
experiment-wise
error rate

99
Q 
The most conservative
post-hoc test is the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
(protects against Type I error,
which increases chance of
Type II error); the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
protects against Type I error
when only pairwise
comparisons are made.
A

Scheffe;

Tukey

100
Q 
In a study where all of the
subjects receive all of the levels
of the independent variable (so
they are not split into separate
groups for comparison), or the
study involves more than 2
matched groups, what statistic
is used?
A

One way
ANOVA for
repeated
measures

101
Q 
A/an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is
used when a study
involves more than 1
independent variable
and 3 or more groups.
A

Factorial

ANOVA

102
Q 
The benefit of using a factorial
ANOVA over separate one-way
ANOVAs is that a factorial ANOVA
produces both \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (effect of
1 independent variable by itself)
and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (effects of an
independent variable at the different
levels of the other independent
variables).
A

Marginal
means; cell
means

103
Q

In graphical form,
how is one able to
tell if there is an
interaction effect?

A

Interaction
effects are
indicated when
lines cross

104
Q 
What parametric statistical
procedure is used when a
study involves 1 or more
independent variables and
2 or more dependent
variables?
A

Multivariate
Analysis of
Variance
(MANOVA)

105
Q 
What test is used to
assess whether observed
frequencies differ
significantly from what is
expected under the null
hypothesis when data is
categorical (i.e., nominal)?
A

Chi-square

106
Q 
A chi-square that involves collecting
categorical data from only 1 sample
of subjects is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
chi-square test, while a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
chi-square test involves adding
another variable in addition to the
one that gives rise to the
classification categories.
A

Single-sample;

multiple-sample

107
Q 
How are expected
frequencies (fe)
calculated for both a
single-sample and a
multiple-sample
chi-square?
A 
single-sample fe = N (#
of subjects)/number of
cells; multiple-sample fe
= (column total x row
total)/total N
108
Q 
TRUE or FALSE: In
order to use chi-square,
it is necessary that all
observations be
independent of each
other.
A 
TRUE:
"Before-and-after"
studies violate this
rule and thus cannot
use chi-square
109
Q

Two tests used when data is rank-ordered (i.e.,
ordinal) include the ________, used when a
study involves 2 independent groups, and the
________, used when correlated groups are
compared; both can also be used when interval
or ratio data does not meet the assumptions of
parametric tests (i.e., normal distribution,
homogeneity of variance), in which case data
would be converted to ranks.

A

Mann-Whitney
U; Wilcoxon
Matched-Pairs
Test

110
Q 
What test is used
when data is
rank-ordered and
more than 2 groups
are to be compared?
A

Kruskal-Wallis

Test

111
Q 
The nonparametric
alternative for a: one-way
ANOVA is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_;
t-test for independent
samples is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_;
t-test for correlated
samples is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Kruskal-Wallis Test;
Mann-Whitney U;
Wilcoxon
Matched-Pairs Test

112
Q 
Typically ranging from -1.0
to +1.0, the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
indicates the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
(indicated by the absolute
value) and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
(indicated by the sign) of a
relationship.
A

Correlation
coefficient;
magnitude;
direction

113
Q 
This correlation coefficient is used
to calculate the relationship
between 2 variables measured on
an interval or ratio scale (e.g.,
relationship between IQ and scores
on the SAT); it is the most
commonly used correlation
coefficient.
A

Pearson Product
Moment
Coefficient
(Pearson r)

114
Q 
A correlation is referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
when Y is impacted differently by
different levels of X (e.g., children's
anxiety level [X] and learning capacity
[Y]: children learn best with moderate
anxiety, and worse with low or high
anxiety), in which case Pearson r cannot
be used and the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ coefficient
would be used.
A

Curvilinear;

eta

115
Q 
An assumption of the use of
Pearson r is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is
when the dispersion of scores on a
scattergram is equal; the term
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ refers to there being
more dispersion at some parts of
the scattergram than others, which
lowers the Pearson r coefficient.
A

Homoscedasticity;

heteroscedasticity

116
Q 
This term refers to the squared
correlation coefficient that
indicates the percentage of
variability in one measure that
is accounted for by variability in
the other measure; it is one
way of interpreting the Pearson
r.
A

Coefficient of

determination

117
Q 
A variable that can have an infinite
number of values between 2 given
points is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (e.g.,
income), while a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ variable
is a variable that categorizes data
into 2 distinct groups (e.g., high/low,
true/false, male/female).
A

Continuous;

dichotomous

118
Q 
TRUE or FALSE: It is
possible to transform
continuous variables
into dichotomous
variables for use in a
correlation coefficient.
A 
TRUE: The variable is
then referred to as
"artificially
dichotomous," though it
is not recommended to
do this
119
Q

Identify the correlation coefficient to use: X and Y
= continuous (income x IQ); X = true dichotomy
and Y = continuous (gender x income); X =
artificial dichotomy and Y = continuous (income
as “upper” or “lower” x IQ); X and Y = true
dichotomy (a MMPI-2 question x gender); X and
Y = artificial dichotomy (income as “upper” or
“lower” x IQ as “high” or “low”); X and Y =
ordinally ranked (relationship between scores
given by 2 judges of a competition).

A

Pearson r; Point
Biserial; Biserial;
phi; Tetrachoric;
Spearman’s rho

120
Q 
An equation used to
estimate the value of on
variable based on the
value of the other, when
they are correlated, is
referred to as what?
A

Regression

equation

121
Q 
A researcher is interested in
predicting the GRE scores of
current undergraduate students
based on their college GPA, which
had previously been shown to be
correlated. In this situation, GRE
scores are the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ variable
while the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ variable is
GPA.
A

Criterion
(dependent);
predictor
(independent)

122
Q 
A line that passes through as
many dots as possible on a
scattergram is called a
regression line, or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_,
which implies a linear
relationship between 2
variables and is an assumption
underlying regression.
A

Line of

best fit

123
Q 
A \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is used to assess
the relationship between 2 or
more predictor variables and a
single criterion variable; the use
of scores on more than 1
predictor to estimate scores on
a criterion is referred to as
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Multiple correlation
(Multiple R);
multiple regression

124
Q

The predictive power of the multiple regression
equation is highest when predictor variables
have ________ correlations with the criterion
variable and ________ correlations with other,
as this implies that each predictor variable is
providing new information about the criterion;
when predictors are highly correlated with each
other, referred to as ________, combining them
produces no substantially new information.

A

High; low;

multicollinearity

125
Q

TRUE or FALSE:
Multiple R can be
both positive and
negative.

A 
FALSE: Multiple R can
never be negative, as
the calculations do not
allow for negative
outcome
126
Q 
Is it ever possible for a
multiple correlation
coefficient (multiple R) to
be lower than the highest
simple correlation between
an individual predictor and
the criterion?
A 
NO: Adding
predictors will never
decrease multiple R,
though it may not
increase it either
127
Q 
A researcher who has a large
number of potential predictor
variables wants to maximize
predictive power by retaining
the predictors that, combined,
have a high multiple correlation
with the criterion. What
technique should be used?
A

Stepwise
multiple
regression

128
Q 
While multiple correlation
indicates the magnitude of the
relationship between multiple
predictors and a single criterion
variables, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is used
when there are multiple
predictor and multiple criterion
variables.
A

Canonical

correlation

129
Q 
What coefficient is used to
assess 2 nominally scaled
variables, each having
more than 2 categories
(e.g., political party x DSM
diagnostic category)?
A

Contingency

coefficient

130
Q 
What correlational technique
involves predicting a categorical
criterion/dependent variable by one
or more continuous
predictor/independent variables
(e.g., membership in "high
achievement" or "low achievement"
group based on WAIS,
Bender-Gestalt, and SAT scores)?
A 
Discriminant
function analysis,
which is the
statistical opposite
of MANOVA
131
Q 
When would logistic
regression, which is used
to predict the criterion
group one belongs to, be
used in place of
discriminant function
analysis?
A 
When the assumptions of
normal distribution and
homogeneity of variance are
not met and/or when the
predictor variables are not
continuous (DFA predictors
must be continuous)
132
Q 
What technique involves
identifying different scores
on a series of predictors
that a person must score
at or above to be predicted
as successful on the
criterion?
A

Multiple

cutoff

133
Q 
Research results reveal that there
is a relatively high correlation
between 2 variables, though the
researcher suspects there may be
an additional variable contributing
to this relationship. What technique
might be used to statistically control
for the effects of the other variable?
A

Partial

correlation

134
Q 
What technique is used for
testing and estimating
causal relationships using
a combination of statistical
data and qualitative causal
assumptions?
A

Structural
equation
modeling
(SEM)

135
Q

________ is used to verify directed (one-way)
causal relationships (dependencies) between
variables, while ________ can be used to verify
both one-way and two-way causal flows; further,
________ can be used only in models that
include observed variables (i.e., measurable),
while ________ can be used in models that
specify observed and latent variables (inferred as
being measured).

A

Path analysis;
LISREL; path
analysis;
LISREL

136
Q 
A researcher is not so much
interested in determining the
magnitude of relationship between
quantitative variables (interval or
ratio) as determining the course of
change in the dependent variable
over time. What correlational
technique would be used in this
case?
A

Trend

analysis

137
Q 
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ describes the
principle underlying the construction
of a regression line, stating that a
regression line is places at a
location on the scattergram that
results in the lowest possible sum
of squared deviations of points from
the line.
A

Least
squares
criterion

138
Q 
A \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ distribution is the entire
set of cases a researcher is
interested in, a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
distribution is a set of scores
obtained from the sample chosen
from a population, and a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
distribution (of any statistic) is the
distribution of the statistic for all
possible samples of a given size.
A

Population;
sample;
sampling

139
Q 
By choosing numerous
samples of size N from a
population, recording the value
of the mean from each sample,
then repeating this procedure
thousands of times, what would
be constructed?
A

Sampling
distribution
of the mean

140
Q 
According to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_: (1) the shape
of the sampling distribution of means
approaches a normal shape as sample
size increases, regardless of whether the
population of distribution scores is
normally distributed or not; and (2) the
mean of the sampling distribution of
means equals the population mean.
A

Central
Limit
Theorem

141
Q 
The standard
deviation of the
sampling distribution
of means is
equivalent to what?
A

The standard
error of the
mean

142
Q 
A statistical test is considered
"\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_" when the Type I
error rate is not significantly
increased when assumptions of
parametric tests are violated;
basically, if they are violated,
the results may still be
accurate.
A

Robust

143
Q 
In a time-series
analysis, the correlation
between values
obtained at different
points in time is referred
to as what?
A

Autocorrelation

144
Q 
This theorem shows how a
conditional probability depends
on its inverse (e.g.,
mammograms are 95%
accurate, though a positive
mammogram is likely
inaccurate based on the
relative rarity of breast cancer).
A

Bayes’ Theorem
(conditional
probabilities and
base rates)

145
Q 
A graduate student decides to
analyze a group of independent
studies that have a common
conceptual basis. This is referred to
as a/an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which yields a
statistic called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ that
indicates the magnitude of an
independent variable's effect.
A

Meta-analysis;

effect size

*EPPP (13 decks)

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