Developmental Flashcards
Characteristics determined by information coded on a person's genes is called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, while \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ refers to a set of observable and measurable characteristics (e.g., eye color, intelligence) that develop from an interaction between a person's genetics and their environment.
Genotype;
phenotype
The idea that genes set boundaries within which environment determines what phenotypes will occur is referred to as what?
Range of
Reaction (or
Norm of
Reaction)
The time-frame during which a living organism is biologically prepared to acquire certain behaviors, but is only able to do so with the presence of appropriate environmental stimuli, is called what?
Critical/Sensitive
Period
This term refers to patterns of development that are genetically determined and are influenced very little by the environment.
Maturation
What term is used to describe characteristics that are rather resistant to environmental forces, taking a narrower developmental path?
Canalization
The fact that children have been starting puberty earlier due to better health practices is one example of a/an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is defined as long-term differences across cohorts that indicate the impact of environment on development.
Secular
trend
What statistic is used to estimate the degree to which a certain characteristic can be attributed to genetic factors?
The
heritability
index
A person with this disorder lacks an enzyme necessary for the digestion of the phenylalanine amino acid, which remains toxic to the brain in its undigested form and leads to severe mental retardation.
Phenylketonuria
PKU
What incurable neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and some cognitive functions is an example of an autosomal dominant gene disorder?
Huntington’s
Chorea
This disorder is caused by an extra number 21 chromosome and is characterized by moderate to profound mental retardation, abnormal physical features (flattened face, protruding tongue, stocky build), heart abnormalities, and thyroid dysfunction.
Down
Syndrome
(trisomy 21)
________ is caused by an extra X chromosome
in males and leads to incomplete development of
secondary sex characteristics; ________ occurs
in females when all or part of the second X
chromosome is missing and causes sterility,
short stature, stubby fingers, and undeveloped
secondary sex characteristics; ________ occurs
in both males and females and is caused by a
weak site on the X chromosome, leading to
mental retardation, facial abnormalities, and
abnormal speech.
Klinefelter's Syndrome; Turner's Syndrome; Fragile X Syndrome
Environmental agents, such as drugs or infections, that cause abnormalities by interfering with normal prenatal development are called what?
Teratogens
During what period of fetal development is a teratogen most likely to cause a major structural defect to a developing organ?
Embryonic period (end of second week after conception to end of eighth week)
Symptoms of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, a condition caused by a pregnant mother's heavy alcohol consumption, include retarded growth, microcephaly (underdeveloped, small brain), facial deformities, hyperactivity, irritability, and mental retardation; when only some of the symptoms are present (e.g., lower IQ and hyperactivity), the condition is referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Fetal alcohol
syndrome; fetal
alcohol effects
TRUE or FALSE: A pregnant woman undergoing antiretroviral therapy is significantly less likely to ransmit HIV to her child during the pregnancy process when compared to woman not receiving the therapy?
TRUE: The chance of HIV transmission from mother to baby when undergoing antiretroviral therapy is reduced from 25% to 2%
The ________ reflex is when an infant grasps a
finger pressed against his palm; the ________
reflex is when an infant extends her big toe and
spreads his pinky toe when the bottom of his foot
is stroked; the ________ reflex is when an infant
arches her back, extends her legs, and projects
her arms outward when her head is slightly
dropped or she hears a loud sound; the
________ reflex is when an infant makes
stepping motions when he his held upright and
his feet touch the ground.
Palmar grasp;
babinski; moro
(or startle);
stepping
These are the 6 family risk factors, according to Rutter, that place infants and young children at risk of child psychopathology; research indicates that children with 1 or no risk have a 2% chance of psychopathology, while 4 or more risks led to a 21% chance.
Low SES, large family size (overcrowding), severe marital discord, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and placement of the child outside of the home
According to Bronfenbrenner, the ________ is
the child’s immediate setting and includes family,
school, and daycare; the ________ comprises
connections between immediate environments
(e.g., a child’s home and school); the ________
is the child’s external environment that has only
an indirect influence on development, such as a
parent’s workplace; the ________ refers to the
larger cultural and subcultural context in which
the other systems are embedded (e.g., national
economy, politics).
Microsystem;
mesosystem;
exosystem;
macrosystem
TRUE or FALSE: At birth, infants show no clear preference for taste.
FALSE: They are capable of experiencing all 4 tastes, though show a clear preference for sweets
What is the least
developed part
of an infant’s
brain at birth?
The
cortex
According to Piaget, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs as a child interacts with the environment and subsequently develops organized ways of thinking about the world (cognitive schemas); it consists of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is when a child perceives and interprets new information in terms of existing schemas, and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is when existing schemas must be modified to provide consistency with external reality.
Adaptation;
assimilation;
accommodation
Piaget believed humans were biologically driven to produce an optimal state of stability between their cognitive structures and their environment, which he termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, a state that is necessary for cognitive development to occur.
Equilibration (accommodation occurs during disequilibrium, assimilation during equilibrium)
What are the 4 stages of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory?
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), preoperational (2 to 7 years), concrete operational (7 to 12 years), and formal operational (12+ years)
When a child who is in the sensorimotor stage of development begins to understand that even if an object cannot be seen, it still exists, is said to be developing what?
Object
permanence
A child in the preoperational stage does not yet understand that others do not experience the world the same exact way they do and, thus, their experience is shared universally, which is termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; an example would be a 2 y/o who scrapes her knee and assumes mommy is also in pain.
Egocentrism
Children in the preoperational stage often believe they can control objects or events just by thinking about them, termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, or that inanimate objects possess thoughts and feelings, termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, both of which are a result of egocentrism.
Magical
thinking;
animism
According to Piaget, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ refers to the tendency to focus on a single detail of a situation while neglecting other important features, which is present during the preoperational stage and limits a child's ability to understand the world
Centration
One of the most prominent developments during the concrete operational stage is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, or the ability for a child to understand that the underlying properties of an object may not change just because its physical appearance has.
Conservation (results from the development of decentration and reversibility)
A person in the formal operational stage of development has the ability to arrive at and test alternative explanations for observed events, referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and can evaluate the logical validity of verbal assertions without making reference to real-world circumstances, which is termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Hypothetical-deductive
reasoning; propositional
thought
An adolescent who is convinced that others are just as concerned with and critical of his behavior as he is exemplifies what characteristic of the formal operational stage of development?
Imaginary
audience
An adolescent who experiences a break-up and is convinced that no one could ever come close to understanding the emotional pain she is experiencing is engaging in what characteristic of the formal operational stage of development?
Personal fable
(the belief that
one is unique and
indestructible)
This neo-Piagetian theory of development compares the human mind to computer processes, proposing that just as a computer improves with changes to hardware and software, so to can a child's mental capacities improve by learning rules and strategies for processing information better.
Information
Processing
Theory
This theory proposes that cognitive development occurs as a direct response to social interactions and that learning occurs on the interpersonal and intrapersonal levels.
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development (Social Development Theory)
According to Vygotsky, the difference between what a person can do without help and what they can do with help is referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the term used to describe the help provided to a child by others.
Zone of
proximal
development;
scaffolding
This phenomenon refers to the inability of adults to recall memories from the earliest years of their childhood.
Infantile
(childhood)
amnesia
TRUE or FALSE: While an infant's cry has been shown to have physiological effects on parents, the effect for first time parents is the strongest.
TRUE: Research has suggested first time parents are most sensitive physiologically, to the sounds of their infant crying
Regarding language development, holophrastic speech, which develops between 12 and 18 months of age, refers to what?
Combining single words with gestures and intonation to express a complete thought or sentence
Research indicating that certain aspects of language are universal, that there is a sensitive period within which language is best acquired, and that there is brain ateralization for language supports what theories of language development?
Nativist theories, which emphasize the role of innate, genetically-determined factors in learning language
At about what age do children start to use rehearsal and other memory strategies in a consistent way?
7 years
old
What is the significant finding that came out of Harlow's research on attachment with monkeys (i.e., wire-monkey with food vs. soft, cloth monkey with no food)?
Contact comfort (the pleasant sensation provided by a soft, warm parent) is more important than food as a determinant of attachment
The idea that infants are born with built-in attachment-related behaviors that mothers respond to with certain behaviors in order to meet infants' needs is characteristic of what theory of attachment?
Bowlby’s
Ethological
Theory
Bowlby proposed that a child's' behavior in later relationships is guided by what he termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which are mental representations of the self and attachment figures developed during the first years of life.
Internal
working
models
A child who is around 6 months old uses information gleaned from reading her parents' emotional reactions to guide her own behaviors, which is referred to as what?
Social referencing
(supported by
“visual cliff”
studies)
Strongest between 14 and 18 months old, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs when an infant responds with distress in the absence of his primary caregiver.
Separation
anxiety
Between what ages does an infant experience the most intense stranger anxiety?
8 to 15
months old
According to Bowlby, babies between 15 and 30 months old with this experience demonstrate the following pattern of predictable behaviors: protest (crying loud, rejects attention from other adults), despair (inactive, withdrawal), and detachment (apathy which may continue in mother's presence).
Prolonged
separation from
their mother
As a result of Ainsworth’s research, the following 4
attachment patterns were identified: ________ (baby
explores environment, comfortable with strangers when
mother is around, emotionally sensitive/responsive),
________ (baby uninterested in environment, distressed
when mother not present and avoids her upon return),
________ (baby anxious when mother present, very
distressed when she leaves and ambivalent upon her
return, wary of strangers), and ________ (baby
apprehensive and confused, alternates between
avoidance/resistance ad proximity-seeking).
Secure; Avoidant/Anxious;
Resistant/Anxious;
Disorganized/Disoriented
The baby of a mother who is either impatient/non-responsive or is overly responsive, involved, and stimulating may respond to the "strange situation" in ways consistent with what attachment pattern?
Anxious/Avoidant
The baby of a mother who is inconsistent in her responses, responding with indifference at times while responding enthusiastically at other times, is likely to develop a/an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ attachment style.
Anxious/Resistant
The 4 adult attachment patterns include: ________ (value
attachment relationships, integrate positive and negative
childhood experiences), ________ (devalue importance of
attachment relationships, defensive and guarded when
asked about childhood, idealize parents without concrete
support), ________ (confused and incoherent attachment
memories, remain enmeshed with family issues, believe
family problems cannot be overcome), and ________ (have
dysfunctional relationships, experienced trauma or loss as
child that was never mourned, tend to be neglectful of their
own children).
Secure-autonomous;
dismissing;
preoccupied;
unresolved
TRUE or FALSE: Research has shown that children who are rejected by their peers tend to experience less psychological and behavioral problems than those neglected by their peers.
FALSE: Children who are rejected by their peers have been shown to demonstrate higher levels of aggressiveness and other disruptive behaviors, as well as increased feelings of loneliness
According to Piaget’s theory of moral
development, children between 4 and 7 years old
demonstrate ________ morality in which rules
are viewed as absolute and unchangeable, and
judgments are based mainly on the
consequences of the act; by 7 or 8 years old,
children demonstrate ________ morality in which
rules are viewed as flexible agreements between
individuals and judgments are based more on
the actor’s intentions.
Heteronomous;
autonomous
Between what
ages does peer
conformity
peak?
12 to 14
years old
TRUE or FALSE: Fearful children develop conscience better when their parent uses gentle discipline (deemphasizes power, capitalizes on child's internal discomfort) rather than negative discipline (threats, angry commands).
TRUE: And fearless children tend to develop conscience through use of secure attachment and maternal responsiveness
Of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny, which is associated with the highest levels of self-esteem in both girls and boys?
Androgyny, while masculinity is associated with higher levels of self-esteem than femininity in both girls and boys
What theory proposes that children internalize conceptual frameworks (schema) about gender-expectations within a sociocultural context, which subsequently predispose the person to construct a schema-consistent self-identity?
Gender
Schema Theory
(Bem, 1981)
According to Kohlberg’s
Cognitive-Developmental Theory, the 3 stages of
gender-identity development are: ________
(child recognizes they are either male or female,
usually by 2 or 3 years old), ________
(realization that gender identity is consistent over
time), and ________ (understand that gender
does not change because of changes in
appearance or behaviors, usually around 6 or 7
years old).
Gender
identity; gender
stability; gender
constancy
According to Thomas and Chess, most children
can be categorized into 1 of 3 temperament
groups, which include: ________ (cheerful, react
to new stimuli with low-moderate intensity, adapt
easily, eat and sleep regularly), ________ (sad
or tense, react to new stimuli with low intensity,
adapt to new situations over time, variable eat
and sleep schedule), and ________ (irritated
with new experiences, difficult to soothe, very
active, irregular eat and sleep schedule).
Easy;
slow-to-warm-up;
difficult
According to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ model, maladjustment is the result of a poor fit between a child's temperament and environment (e.g., parents' response pattern), whereas a more appropriate fit leads to a more well-adjusted child.
Goodness-of-Fit
(Thomas and
Chess)
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development proposed by Freud?
- Oral (birth to 1 year);
- Anal (1 to 3 years); 3.
Phallic (3 to 6 years); 4.
Latency (6 years to
puberty); 5. Genital
(post-puberty)
According to Freud, during which stage of development does the Oedipal (boys) or Electra (girls) conflict occur?
Phallic
stage (3 to
6 years)
What are the 8 psychosocial conflicts, according to Erikson, that occur throughout a person's lifespan?
Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year),
autonomy vs. shame/doubt (1 to 3 years),
initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years), industry
vs. inferiority (6 years to puberty), identity
vs. identity confusion (adolescence),
intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood),
generativity vs. stagnation (middle
adulthood), and ego integrity vs. despair
(old age)
Regarding parenting styles, ________ parents
are warm and nurturing, gain control through
explanation and seeking their child’s input, and
set high standards; ________ parents are
controlling and demanding, and respond to
disobedience punitively; ________ parents are
nurturing but fail to assert their authority,
providing little structure; and ________ parents
are undemanding and indifferent, uncommitted
as parents, and keep a distance from their
children.
Authoritative;
authoritarian;
permissive;
uninvolved
A person who, as a child, was insecure and unhappy, and as an adult lacked a sense of initiative and was dependent on others, is likely to have had parents with what type of parenting style?
Authoritarian
The characteristics of what parenting style are most predictive of adolescent delinquency?
Uninvolved
According to Marcia, which “identity
status” corresponds to the following
adolescent responses to an inquiry about
political beliefs: 1) “I haven’t really
thought about it.” 2) “I’m libertarian, like
my parents.” 3) “I’m a little confused and
wonder if my beliefs are represented by
any existing political party.” 4) “After
struggling with it, I feel confident with my
liberal perspectives.”
Identity diffusion (no identity crisis or commitment); identity foreclosure (strong commitment to identity based on external influence, not crisis); identity moratorium (identity crisis leads to exploration of options); identity achievement (crisis resolved and committed to identity)
According to Gilligan, females risk experiencing \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ as a result of the internalization of sexist messages; this can be mitigated by authority figures (parents, teachers) providing them with experiences that promote and support remaining connected to themselves and others.
Loss of
voice
According to Patterson and his colleagues, children learn to act aggressively as a result of what 2 parenting factors?
Imitation and being rewarded for their aggressive acts (via attention or approval)
TRUE or FALSE: Having a parent present while watching aggressive television programs mitigates the negative effects on children.
TRUE: As does parental disapproval of aggression, encouragement of nonaggressive behavior, and limiting viewing of violent shows
TRUE or FALSE: Catharsis is an effective approach to treating aggressive children (e.g., instructing an angry child to hit a pillow).
FALSE: Research has shown that catharsis can stimulate aggression
According to research, how does divorce typically affect the parenting styles of both mothers and fathers?
Mothers show less affection toward children, especially sons, whom they may treat more harshly; fathers become more indulgent and permissive
While boys of divorced parents tend to be affected immediately, demonstrating increased negative behaviors, young girls may appear unaffected until their adolescent years, exemplifying this phenomenon.
Sleeper
effect
The idea that genes set boundaries within which environment determines what phenotypes will occur is referred to as what?
Range of
Reaction (or
Norm of
Reaction)
The time-frame during which a living organism is biologically prepared to acquire certain behaviors, but is only able to do so with the presence of appropriate environmental stimuli, is called what?
Critical/Sensitive
Period
This term refers to patterns of development that are genetically determined and are influenced very little by the environment.
Maturation
What term is used to describe characteristics that are rather resistant to environmental forces, taking a narrower developmental path?
Canalization
The fact that children have been starting puberty earlier due to better health practices is one example of a/an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is defined as long-term differences across cohorts that indicate the impact of environment on development.
Secular
trend
What statistic is used to estimate the degree to which a certain characteristic can be attributed to genetic factors?
The
heritability
index
A person with this disorder lacks an enzyme necessary for the digestion of the phenylalanine amino acid, which remains toxic to the brain in its undigested form and leads to severe mental retardation.
Phenylketonuria
PKU
What incurable neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and some cognitive functions is an example of an autosomal dominant gene disorder?
Huntington’s
Chorea
This disorder is caused by an extra number 21 chromosome and is characterized by moderate to profound mental retardation, abnormal physical features (flattened face, protruding tongue, stocky build), heart abnormalities, and thyroid dysfunction.
Down
Syndrome
(trisomy 21)
________ is caused by an extra X chromosome
in males and leads to incomplete development of
secondary sex characteristics; ________ occurs
in females when all or part of the second X
chromosome is missing and causes sterility,
short stature, stubby fingers, and undeveloped
secondary sex characteristics; ________ occurs
in both males and females and is caused by a
weak site on the X chromosome, leading to
mental retardation, facial abnormalities, and
abnormal speech.
Klinefelter's Syndrome; Turner's Syndrome; Fragile X Syndrome
Environmental agents, such as drugs or infections, that cause abnormalities by interfering with normal prenatal development are called what?
Teratogens
During what period of fetal development is a teratogen most likely to cause a major structural defect to a developing organ?
Embryonic period (end of second week after conception to end of eighth week)
Symptoms of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, a condition caused by a pregnant mother's heavy alcohol consumption, include retarded growth, microcephaly (underdeveloped, small brain), facial deformities, hyperactivity, irritability, and mental retardation; when only some of the symptoms are present (e.g., lower IQ and hyperactivity), the condition is referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Fetal alcohol
syndrome; fetal
alcohol effects
TRUE or FALSE: A pregnant woman undergoing antiretroviral therapy is significantly less likely to ransmit HIV to her child during the pregnancy process when compared to woman not receiving the therapy?
TRUE: The chance of HIV transmission from mother to baby when undergoing antiretroviral therapy is reduced from 25% to 2%
The ________ reflex is when an infant grasps a
finger pressed against his palm; the ________
reflex is when an infant extends her big toe and
spreads his pinky toe when the bottom of his foot
is stroked; the ________ reflex is when an infant
arches her back, extends her legs, and projects
her arms outward when her head is slightly
dropped or she hears a loud sound; the
________ reflex is when an infant makes
stepping motions when he his held upright and
his feet touch the ground.
Palmar grasp;
babinski; moro
(or startle);
stepping
These are the 6 family risk factors, according to Rutter, that place infants and young children at risk of child psychopathology; research indicates that children with 1 or no risk have a 2% chance of psychopathology, while 4 or more risks led to a 21% chance.
Low SES, large family size (overcrowding), severe marital discord, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and placement of the child outside of the home
According to Bronfenbrenner, the ________ is
the child’s immediate setting and includes family,
school, and daycare; the ________ comprises
connections between immediate environments
(e.g., a child’s home and school); the ________
is the child’s external environment that has only
an indirect influence on development, such as a
parent’s workplace; the ________ refers to the
larger cultural and subcultural context in which
the other systems are embedded (e.g., national
economy, politics).
Microsystem;
mesosystem;
exosystem;
macrosystem
TRUE or FALSE: At birth, infants show no clear preference for taste.
FALSE: They are capable of experiencing all 4 tastes, though show a clear preference for sweets
What is the least
developed part
of an infant’s
brain at birth?
The
cortex
According to Piaget, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs as a child interacts with the environment and subsequently develops organized ways of thinking about the world (cognitive schemas); it consists of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is when a child perceives and interprets new information in terms of existing schemas, and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which is when existing schemas must be modified to provide consistency with external reality.
Adaptation;
assimilation;
accommodation
Piaget believed humans were biologically driven to produce an optimal state of stability between their cognitive structures and their environment, which he termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, a state that is necessary for cognitive development to occur.
Equilibration (accommodation occurs during disequilibrium, assimilation during equilibrium)
What are the 4 stages of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory?
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), preoperational (2 to 7 years), concrete operational (7 to 12 years), and formal operational (12+ years)
When a child who is in the sensorimotor stage of development begins to understand that even if an object cannot be seen, it still exists, is said to be developing what?
Object
permanence
A child in the preoperational stage does not yet understand that others do not experience the world the same exact way they do and, thus, their experience is shared universally, which is termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; an example would be a 2 y/o who scrapes her knee and assumes mommy is also in pain.
Egocentrism
Children in the preoperational stage often believe they can control objects or events just by thinking about them, termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, or that inanimate objects possess thoughts and feelings, termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, both of which are a result of egocentrism.
Magical
thinking;
animism
According to Piaget, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ refers to the tendency to focus on a single detail of a situation while neglecting other important features, which is present during the preoperational stage and limits a child's ability to understand the world
Centration
One of the most prominent developments during the concrete operational stage is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, or the ability for a child to understand that the underlying properties of an object may not change just because its physical appearance has.
Conservation (results from the development of decentration and reversibility)
A person in the formal operational stage of development has the ability to arrive at and test alternative explanations for observed events, referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and can evaluate the logical validity of verbal assertions without making reference to real-world circumstances, which is termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Hypothetical-deductive
reasoning; propositional
thought
An adolescent who is convinced that others are just as concerned with and critical of his behavior as he is exemplifies what characteristic of the formal operational stage of development?
Imaginary
audience
An adolescent who experiences a break-up and is convinced that no one could ever come close to understanding the emotional pain she is experiencing is engaging in what characteristic of the formal operational stage of development?
Personal fable
(the belief that
one is unique and
indestructible)
This neo-Piagetian theory of development compares the human mind to computer processes, proposing that just as a computer improves with changes to hardware and software, so to can a child's mental capacities improve by learning rules and strategies for processing information better.
Information
Processing
Theory
This theory proposes that cognitive development occurs as a direct response to social interactions and that learning occurs on the interpersonal and intrapersonal levels.
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development (Social Development Theory)
According to Vygotsky, the difference between what a person can do without help and what they can do with help is referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the term used to describe the help provided to a child by others.
Zone of
proximal
development;
scaffolding
This phenomenon refers to the inability of adults to recall memories from the earliest years of their childhood.
Infantile
(childhood)
amnesia
TRUE or FALSE: While an infant's cry has been shown to have physiological effects on parents, the effect for first time parents is the strongest.
TRUE: Research has suggested first time parents are most sensitive physiologically, to the sounds of their infant crying
Regarding language development, holophrastic speech, which develops between 12 and 18 months of age, refers to what?
Combining single words with gestures and intonation to express a complete thought or sentence
Research indicating that certain aspects of language are universal, that there is a sensitive period within which language is best acquired, and that there is brain ateralization for language supports what theories of language development?
Nativist theories, which emphasize the role of innate, genetically-determined factors in learning language
At about what age do children start to use rehearsal and other memory strategies in a consistent way?
7 years
old
What is the significant finding that came out of Harlow's research on attachment with monkeys (i.e., wire-monkey with food vs. soft, cloth monkey with no food)?
Contact comfort (the pleasant sensation provided by a soft, warm parent) is more important than food as a determinant of attachment
The idea that infants are born with built-in attachment-related behaviors that mothers respond to with certain behaviors in order to meet infants' needs is characteristic of what theory of attachment?
Bowlby’s
Ethological
Theory
Bowlby proposed that a child's' behavior in later relationships is guided by what he termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which are mental representations of the self and attachment figures developed during the first years of life.
Internal
working
models
A child who is around 6 months old uses information gleaned from reading her parents' emotional reactions to guide her own behaviors, which is referred to as what?
Social referencing
(supported by
“visual cliff”
studies)
Strongest between 14 and 18 months old, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs when an infant responds with distress in the absence of his primary caregiver.
Separation
anxiety
Between what ages does an infant experience the most intense stranger anxiety?
8 to 15
months old
According to Bowlby, babies between 15 and 30 months old with this experience demonstrate the following pattern of predictable behaviors: protest (crying loud, rejects attention from other adults), despair (inactive, withdrawal), and detachment (apathy which may continue in mother's presence).
Prolonged
separation from
their mother
As a result of Ainsworth’s research, the following 4
attachment patterns were identified: ________ (baby
explores environment, comfortable with strangers when
mother is around, emotionally sensitive/responsive),
________ (baby uninterested in environment, distressed
when mother not present and avoids her upon return),
________ (baby anxious when mother present, very
distressed when she leaves and ambivalent upon her
return, wary of strangers), and ________ (baby
apprehensive and confused, alternates between
avoidance/resistance ad proximity-seeking).
Secure; Avoidant/Anxious;
Resistant/Anxious;
Disorganized/Disoriented
The baby of a mother who is either impatient/non-responsive or is overly responsive, involved, and stimulating may respond to the "strange situation" in ways consistent with what attachment pattern?
Anxious/Avoidant
The baby of a mother who is inconsistent in her responses, responding with indifference at times while responding enthusiastically at other times, is likely to develop a/an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ attachment style.
Anxious/Resistant
The 4 adult attachment patterns include: ________ (value
attachment relationships, integrate positive and negative
childhood experiences), ________ (devalue importance of
attachment relationships, defensive and guarded when
asked about childhood, idealize parents without concrete
support), ________ (confused and incoherent attachment
memories, remain enmeshed with family issues, believe
family problems cannot be overcome), and ________ (have
dysfunctional relationships, experienced trauma or loss as
child that was never mourned, tend to be neglectful of their
own children).
Secure-autonomous;
dismissing;
preoccupied;
unresolved
TRUE or FALSE: Research has shown that children who are rejected by their peers tend to experience less psychological and behavioral problems than those neglected by their peers.
FALSE: Children who are rejected by their peers have been shown to demonstrate higher levels of aggressiveness and other disruptive behaviors, as well as increased feelings of loneliness
According to Piaget’s theory of moral
development, children between 4 and 7 years old
demonstrate ________ morality in which rules
are viewed as absolute and unchangeable, and
judgments are based mainly on the
consequences of the act; by 7 or 8 years old,
children demonstrate ________ morality in which
rules are viewed as flexible agreements between
individuals and judgments are based more on
the actor’s intentions.
Heteronomous;
autonomous
Between what
ages does peer
conformity
peak?
12 to 14
years old
TRUE or FALSE: Fearful children develop conscience better when their parent uses gentle discipline (deemphasizes power, capitalizes on child's internal discomfort) rather than negative discipline (threats, angry commands).
TRUE: And fearless children tend to develop conscience through use of secure attachment and maternal responsiveness
Of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny, which is associated with the highest levels of self-esteem in both girls and boys?
Androgyny, while masculinity is associated with higher levels of self-esteem than femininity in both girls and boys
What theory proposes that children internalize conceptual frameworks (schema) about gender-expectations within a sociocultural context, which subsequently predispose the person to construct a schema-consistent self-identity?
Gender
Schema Theory
(Bem, 1981)
According to Kohlberg’s
Cognitive-Developmental Theory, the 3 stages of
gender-identity development are: ________
(child recognizes they are either male or female,
usually by 2 or 3 years old), ________
(realization that gender identity is consistent over
time), and ________ (understand that gender
does not change because of changes in
appearance or behaviors, usually around 6 or 7
years old).
Gender
identity; gender
stability; gender
constancy
According to Thomas and Chess, most children
can be categorized into 1 of 3 temperament
groups, which include: ________ (cheerful, react
to new stimuli with low-moderate intensity, adapt
easily, eat and sleep regularly), ________ (sad
or tense, react to new stimuli with low intensity,
adapt to new situations over time, variable eat
and sleep schedule), and ________ (irritated
with new experiences, difficult to soothe, very
active, irregular eat and sleep schedule).
Easy;
slow-to-warm-up;
difficult
According to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ model, maladjustment is the result of a poor fit between a child's temperament and environment (e.g., parents' response pattern), whereas a more appropriate fit leads to a more well-adjusted child.
Goodness-of-Fit
(Thomas and
Chess)
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development proposed by Freud?
- Oral (birth to 1 year);
- Anal (1 to 3 years); 3.
Phallic (3 to 6 years); 4.
Latency (6 years to
puberty); 5. Genital
(post-puberty)
According to Freud, during which stage of development does the Oedipal (boys) or Electra (girls) conflict occur?
Phallic
stage (3 to
6 years)
What are the 8 psychosocial conflicts, according to Erikson, that occur throughout a person's lifespan?
Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year),
autonomy vs. shame/doubt (1 to 3 years),
initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years), industry
vs. inferiority (6 years to puberty), identity
vs. identity confusion (adolescence),
intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood),
generativity vs. stagnation (middle
adulthood), and ego integrity vs. despair
(old age)
Regarding parenting styles, ________ parents
are warm and nurturing, gain control through
explanation and seeking their child’s input, and
set high standards; ________ parents are
controlling and demanding, and respond to
disobedience punitively; ________ parents are
nurturing but fail to assert their authority,
providing little structure; and ________ parents
are undemanding and indifferent, uncommitted
as parents, and keep a distance from their
children.
Authoritative;
authoritarian;
permissive;
uninvolved
A person who, as a child, was insecure and unhappy, and as an adult lacked a sense of initiative and was dependent on others, is likely to have had parents with what type of parenting style?
Authoritarian
The characteristics of what parenting style are most predictive of adolescent delinquency?
Uninvolved
According to Marcia, which “identity
status” corresponds to the following
adolescent responses to an inquiry about
political beliefs: 1) “I haven’t really
thought about it.” 2) “I’m libertarian, like
my parents.” 3) “I’m a little confused and
wonder if my beliefs are represented by
any existing political party.” 4) “After
struggling with it, I feel confident with my
liberal perspectives.”
Identity diffusion (no identity crisis or commitment); identity foreclosure (strong commitment to identity based on external influence, not crisis); identity moratorium (identity crisis leads to exploration of options); identity achievement (crisis resolved and committed to identity)
According to Gilligan, females risk experiencing \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ as a result of the internalization of sexist messages; this can be mitigated by authority figures (parents, teachers) providing them with experiences that promote and support remaining connected to themselves and others.
Loss of
voice
According to Patterson and his colleagues, children learn to act aggressively as a result of what 2 parenting factors?
Imitation and being rewarded for their aggressive acts (via attention or approval)
TRUE or FALSE: Having a parent present while watching aggressive television programs mitigates the negative effects on children.
TRUE: As does parental disapproval of aggression, encouragement of nonaggressive behavior, and limiting viewing of violent shows
TRUE or FALSE: Catharsis is an effective approach to treating aggressive children (e.g., instructing an angry child to hit a pillow).
FALSE: Research has shown that catharsis can stimulate aggression
According to research, how does divorce typically affect the parenting styles of both mothers and fathers?
Mothers show less affection toward children, especially sons, whom they may treat more harshly; fathers become more indulgent and permissive
Studies indicate that children who are
preschool-aged when their parents divorce tend
to experience more ________ consequences
(e.g., self-blame, immature behavior, separation
anxiety), while children who are older at the time
of their parents divorce experience more
________ consequences (e.g., lasting painful
memories, fear their own ability to be happily
married).
Short-term;
long-term
Who is likely to be more well adjusted, a child from an intact family that is constantly in conflict, or a child from a divorced family low in conflict?
Research indicates that children from high-conflict intact families tend to be more poorly adjusted than those from low-conflict divorced families
The relationship between children and step-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ involves more frequent interactions, though they are often harsh, while relationships between children and step-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are typically unpleasant and disengaged.
Mothers;
fathers
TRUE or FALSE: Children with mothers who work tend to have lower self-esteem and worse family and peer relations than children whose mothers do not work.
FALSE: Research suggests children with working mothers tend to have higher self-esteem and better relationships, in general
In what ways does the adjustment of children with homosexual parents differ from that of children raised by heterosexual parents?
Research suggests no significant differences, including future sexual orientation, impact of divorce, and peer relations
In her Kansas City Study, Neugarten found that around 50 years old, people experience a transition from an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ orientation; she also found that "midlife" is characterized by a shift in perspective from "\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_" to "\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_."
Outer-world (environment can be controlled); Inner-world (environment is a threat); time since birth; time until death
As people increase in age, they are likely to experience relatively little impact when performing \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ tasks that measure acquired knowledge; however, performance on \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ tasks requiring rapid responding to and processing of new information declines significantly.
Verbal;
nonverbal
In the months just prior to death, most people experience the phenomenon termed \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, whereby all areas of intelligence decline significantly.
Terminal
drop
The "synchrony effect" (May and Hasher) refers to the matching of task demands with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, which positively influences performance on cognitive tasks.
Preferred
time of day
What types of
memory are most
negatively
impacted by age?
Recent
long-term and
working
memory
Long-term memory is divided into \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ memory, of which the latter tends to be substantially more negatively impacted by age than the former.
Remote;
recent
TRUE or FALSE: Age-related memory decline appears to be more a function of poor encoding strategies rather than capacity for storage of new memories.
FALSE: Hence,
training in
encoding skills
can be beneficial
Research indicates that aging has the greatest impact on one's ability to recall personal experiences, which is referred to as what?
Episodic
memory
What are the 5 stages proposed by Kubler-Ross that people go through when faced with their own death?
Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance (DABDA)
During what ages does a person experience the greatest anxiety about death?
50 to 60
years old
