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Class 3 > Skin > Flashcards

Skin Flashcards

1
Q

What is a function of the skin relating to protection?

A

It protects underlying tissues and organs from impact, abrasion, fluid loss and chemical attack

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2
Q

What are the 8 basic functions of the skin and the accessory structures?

A
  1. protection
  2. excretion
  3. maintaining body temperature
  4. producing melanin
  5. producing keratin
  6. making vitamin D3
  7. store lipids
  8. detection
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3
Q

What is the function of the skin relating to excretion?

A

the integumentary glands excrete salts, water and organic wastes

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4
Q

What is the function of the skin relating to maintaining body temperature?

A

It maintains normal body temperature through insulation or evaporative cooling

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5
Q

What is the function of the skin relating to the production of melanin?

A

Melanin protects the underlying tissue from UV radiation

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6
Q

What is the function of the skin relating to the production of keratin?

A

Keratin protects against abrasion and serves as a water repellent

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7
Q

What is the function of the skin relating to the synthesis of vitamin D3?

A

Vitamin D3 is a steroid that is converted to calcitriol

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8
Q

What is the function of the skin relating to the storage of lipids?

A

Lipids are stored in the adipocytes in the dermis and in the adipose tissue in the subcutaneous layer

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9
Q

What is the function of the skin relating to detection?

A

It detects touch, pressure, pain, and temperature stimuli, and relay that information to the nervous system

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10
Q

Skin is an ________ and is made up of how many of the four tissue types?

A

Organ

Four of them (ie. all)

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11
Q

What are the three layers of the skin called?

A
  1. epidermis
  2. dermis
  3. hypodermis
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12
Q

The cutaneous layer consists of which layer(s) of the skin?

A

epidermis and dermis

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13
Q

The subcutaneous layer consists of which layer(s) of the skin?

A

hypodermis

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14
Q

Briefly describe the epidermis

A
  • stratified barrier
  • mostly keratinocytes which contain lots of keratin
  • no circulation (avascular) so you won’t bleed when grazed
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15
Q

Briefly describe the dermis

A
  • does not shed (dead cells are broken down into the circulatory system)
  • protein fibres (collagen and elastin) for strength
  • vascular to nourish the epidermis
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16
Q

What are the layers of the dermis?

A

Papillary layer

Reticular layer

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17
Q

What is the purpose of the papillary layer of the dermis?

A

to increase the surface area for attachment, firmly binding the epidermis to the dermis
this allows a better transfer of nutrients to the epidermis

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18
Q

What is the purpose of the reticular layer of the dermis?

A

It is a mesh where collagen and elastin overlap to give strength

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19
Q

What are the 5 layers of the epidermis called?

A
  1. stratum corneum
  2. stratum lucidium (only found in thick skin)
  3. stratum granulosum
  4. stratum spinosum
  5. stratum basale
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20
Q

Describe the stratum corneum

A

dead, dried out cells without nuclei which provides an essential protective function

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21
Q

Describe the stratum granulosum

A
  • contains granules that promote dehydration of the cell and cross-linking of keratin fibres to make hard barrier towards outside
  • waxy material is secreted into intercellular spaces to act as a barrier
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22
Q

Describe the stratum spinosum

A
  • cells are spiny when dried as desmosomes link the cells together to make barrier
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23
Q

Describe the stratum basale

A
  • columnar (tall) regenerative cells

- like the stem cells of the skin making each cell as they grow and divide out

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24
Q

Which layer of the skin can be completely removed?

A

The stratum corneum

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25
Q

What tissue type dominates the epidermis?

A

epthelial

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26
Q

What are the two types of epithelial cells?

A

Simple

Stratified

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27
Q

What are the three types of epithelial cells that make up both simple and stratified epithelial cells?

A

Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar

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28
Q

What epithelial cell does the epidermis mainly consist of?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

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29
Q

Briefly describe the hypodermis

A

contains adipose tissue for insulation

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30
Q

Describe the difference between thick and thin skin

A
  • thin sin covers most of the body whereas thick skin is found on the palms and the soles of the feet
  • thin skin has hair whereas thick skin has no hair
  • thick skin has an extra epidermal layer (stratum lucidum)
  • the epidermis is much thicker in thick skin that in thin skin as there is also a lot of stratum corneum
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31
Q

What are 6 effects of ageing on the skin?

A
  1. thin epidermis
  2. thin dermis causing sagging and wrinkles as there is reduced collage
  3. slower skin repair
  4. drier epidermis as there is less sebum
  5. impaired cooling as there is less sweat
  6. less pigmentation causing pale skin and hair
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32
Q

Describe the keranocyte conveyor and its purpose

A

Cells are produced in the stratum basale and are moving their way out. If an infection affects the lower living cells, the infection is grown out and shed

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33
Q

Describe squamous epithelial cells

A

Flat cells, like scales

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34
Q

Describe columnar epithelial cells

A

long, tall cells

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35
Q

What are four accessory structures of the skin?

A

Hair
Sweat glands
Receptors
Nails

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36
Q

What four things does hair consist of?

A

hair shaft
hair follicle
arrector pili muscle
sebaceous gland

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37
Q

Where is the hair shaft located?

A

epidermis

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38
Q

Where is the hair follicle located?

A

dermis

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39
Q

Describe the role of the arrector pili muscle

A

It is attached to the hair follicle which makes the hair stand up and cause goosebumps when contracted

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40
Q

Describe the role of the sebaceous gland

A

produces sebum

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41
Q

Describe sebum including where it is located and what it does

A

Sebum is produced in the sebaceous gland in the dermis. It is waxy and oily and travels on the hair shaft to nourish the hair. It can also remain on the skin to act as a natural moisturiser and water repellent, especially on the head, shoulders, back and chest.

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42
Q

What causes acne?

A

sebum can block the hair follicles which can cause an infection

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43
Q

What are the two types of sweat glands?

A

Eccrine and apocrine

44
Q

What is the difference between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands?

A

Eccrine sweat glands are everywhere and are responsible for thermoregulation whereas apocrine sweat glands are located in the nipples and armpits. They are specialised and situated deeper in the skin and release sweat into the base of hair follicles

45
Q

What are the three types of receptors of the skin?

A

Tactile
Lamellar
Bulbous

46
Q

What are the two roles of the nails?

A

Provide structural integrity to protect fingertips

Enhancing sensations

47
Q

Where is melanin produced?

A

In the melenocytes

48
Q

Melanin is transferred to outer layers of epidermal cells in vesicles called

A

melanosomes

49
Q

What is a mole?

A

A cluster of melanocytes and over-proliferation can be caused by sun exposure

50
Q

What is a freckle?

A

Melanocytes overproducing melanosomes but overproduction is triggered by sun exposure

51
Q

Where are melanocytes located?

A

in the stratum basale

52
Q

Where are melanosomes located?

A

throughout the epidermis and it’s shed with the keratinocytes

53
Q

Does the density of melanocytes differ between races?

A

No

54
Q

Describe a tattoo

A

artificial pigmentation deposited in the dermis and captured (but not broken down) by immune cells/scar tissue

55
Q

What do receptors in the skin (especially the fingertips) work on the basis of?

A

They work on the basis of deformation (ie. how deformed the receptors come once we touch them).

56
Q

How do the nails enhance sensation?

A

If we don’t have a backing on the fingers, we aren’t going to get enough deformation and not sense as much

57
Q

What is the advantage of having melanosomes in the dead outer layers of the skin?

A

The melanin can absorb UV light before it reaches the living tissue

58
Q

As we age, what happens to melanocytes/melanosomes?

A

There might be fewer melanocytes or less production of melanosomes so there is less pigmentation as we age.

59
Q

Highly pigmented people tend to live around the _______ and why?

A

equator because there is higher levels of UV exposure

60
Q

Why do we have less pigmentation at higher latitudes?

A

Because UV is essential for the production of vitamin D

61
Q

What does vitamin D do?

A

normal calcium metabolism and strong bones and can affect mood

62
Q

What are the five touch receptors of the skin called?

A
  1. free nerve endings
  2. tactile (Merkel) disks
  3. tactile (Meissner) corpuscles
  4. lamellar corpuscles
  5. bulbous corpuscles
63
Q

Most receptors are responsive for more than ________ but each receptor will respond to best to a ________

A

one stimulus

particular stimulus

64
Q

What is the most common touch receptor?

A

free nerve ending

65
Q

Describe a free nerve ending:

  • what is it?
  • where is it?
  • what does it look like?
  • what features does it have and what do they act as?
  • myelinated or unmyelinated?
A
  • a sensory nerve terminal branching and extending to the epidermis
  • there is swelling at the end (this is the sensory terminal)
  • the sensory terminals have receptors which act as cation channels when the appropriate stimulus is applied
  • mostly un-myelinated small fibres but also some small diameter myelinated fibres
66
Q

What happens when cations come into the sensory terminals in free nerve endings?

A

Na+ and Ca2+ come into the terminal, there is a depolarisation and an action potential is propagated to the somatosensory cortex

67
Q

What five things do free nerve endings respond to?

A
  • temperature
  • painfull stimuli
  • some movement and pressure
  • some to itch (eg. in response to histamine)
  • some wrap around hair follicles acting as light touch receptors which detect the bending of hairs (eg. when a mosquito lands on your skin)
68
Q

What is it called when free nerve endings wrap around hair follicles?

A

peritrichial endings

69
Q

Describe tactile (Merkel) discs

  • what are they?
  • what are they associated with?
  • where are they found?
  • what are they sensitive to?
A
  • free nerve endings in the deepest layer of the epidermis
  • also associated with Merkel cells
  • abundant in fingertips and very small receptive fields
  • sensitive to an objects physical features (texture, shape and edges, fine touch and light pressure)
70
Q

What are Merkel cells?

A

disc shaped epidermal cells

71
Q

Explain how tactile discs interact with Merkel cells

A

Merkel cells detect stimuli and transduce that to the sensory nerve terminal.
There is a depolarisation of the sensory nerve terminal and an action potential is propagated to the somatosensory cortex.

72
Q

Describe tactile (Meissner) corpuscles

  • where are they located?
  • what do they look like?
  • what surrounds them?
  • what happens when the _______ is deformed?
A
  • located in the papillary of the dermis especially in hairless skin
  • branching unmyelinated sensory nerve terminals surrounded by specialised Schwann cells (not for myelination but for support)
  • then a thin layer connective tissue capsule around the outside
  • when the capsule is deformed, Na+ channels will open and an action potential is propagated to the somatosensory cortex
73
Q

What five things do tactile (Meissner) corpuscles sense?

A
  • delicate/fine touch
  • shape and textural changes in exploratory touch
  • movements over the surface of the skin
  • light pressure
  • low frequency vibration
74
Q

Describe lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles

  • where are they?
  • what do they look like?
  • what are the ______ separated by?
  • what are deformed due to?
  • what happens when they deform?
  • are they rapidly adapting?
A
  • deep in the dermis or hypodermis
  • a single dendrite lying within concentric layers of collagen fibres and specialised fibroblasts
  • layers separated by gelatinous interstitial liquid
  • deformed due to deep pressure or vibration
  • deformation opens pressure sensitive Na+ channels in sensory axon
  • rapidly adapting
75
Q

Why are lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles rapidly adapting?

A

Because their collagen layers resume shape and respond to another stimulus. This is how they can detect vibration.

76
Q

Describe bulbous corpuscles (Ruffini’s endings)

  • where are they located?
  • what do they look like?
  • what happens when pressure is applied?
  • where are they mostly found and why?
A
  • located in the dermis and hypodermis
  • network of nerve endings intertwined with a core of collagen fibres that are continuous with those of the surrounding dermis
  • capsule surrounds the entire structure
  • pressure in dermis distorts the bulbous corpuscles
  • high density around fingernails so may have a role in monitoring of slippage of objects across the surface skin
77
Q

Describe the role of blood flow in temperature regualtion

A

In the hypodermis, arteries are supplying blood to the venous plexus (veins). Some of the branches of artery are extending to the dermis and up to the epidermis, there are loops of capillaries.
In the blood vessels, there are muscles in the walls of the arteries and bands of smooth muscle (capillary sphincters) with can constrict or relax to control blood flow to the capillaries

78
Q

Describe how the capillary sphincter is controlled and how it controls thermoregulation

A

The smooth muscles in walls of the arteries and the capillary sphincters are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.
NE is released and this binds to α1 receptors on the vascular smooth muscle. This causes a second messenger molecule to be released and there is an increase in Ca2+ concentration to cause contraction and there is reduced blood flow to the skin. If the sympathetic nervous system activity is reduced, the muscles relax and there is increased blood flow to the skin.

79
Q

What is the normal body temperature range for humans?

A

36.5 - 37.5 degrees celcius

80
Q

What are the four primary mechanisms of heat transfer?

A

Radiation
Evaporation
Convection
Conduction

81
Q

Briefly describe radiation

A

Heat loss due in the form of infrared rays

82
Q

Briefly describe conduction

A

the transfer of heat to objects or media with which we are in contact

83
Q

Briefly describe convection

A

it first involves the transfer of heat to air (or water) by conduction followed by the movement of the air (or water) away from the skin (ie. replaced the warm air around your body with cold stuff) to maintain the gradient of heat loss.

84
Q

Briefly describe evaporation

A

water evaporates from (mainly) the surface of the skin and it takes the heat energy from our body

85
Q

the eccrine sweat glands are innverated by the

A

sympathetic nervous system

86
Q

Describe how the eccrine sweat glands release sweat (both temperature and nervous)

A

Unusually, the sympathetic nerves release ACh which binds to the mAChRs to release sweat
They can also be stimulated by adrenaline in the blood acting on β receptors

87
Q

What happens when the body temperature increases?

A
  • the heat sensitive neurons in the pre-optic area of hypothalamus are activated
  • there is a decrease of SNS activation of α1 receptors which causes vasodilation
  • there is an increase in SNS activation of mAChRs on sweat glands to cause sweating
  • increase in respiratory rate
  • behaviour changes
88
Q

What is it called when the capillary sphincters open and blood can flow closer to the skin?

A

vasodilation

89
Q

When are radiation, conduction and convection not effective heat loss mechanisms?

A

when the environmental temperature is higher than the body temperature

90
Q

What 6 things happen when the body temperature decreases?

A
  • the cold sensitive neurons in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus are activated
  • shivering
  • non-shivering thermogenesis
  • increased thyroxine
  • arrector pili muscle activation
  • heat is transferred from the arteries to the veins so that the warm blood in the arteries doesn’t go to the skin but is transferred to the veins bringing cold blood to the core
91
Q

Describe the process of shivering

A
  • increased tone of skeletal muscles
  • when tone rises above critical level, shivering begins due to oscillatory contractions of agonists and antagonist muscles mediated by muscle spindles
92
Q

Describe non-shivering thermogenesis:

  • increased ____ activity and increased circulating ____ and ______ from the _____ ______
  • increased _______ _______ eg. increased ________ in the ____ and ______
  • _____ of _____ _____ (ie. _____ produced instead of ATP)
A
  • increased SNS activity and increased circulating adrenaline and NE from adrenal medulla
  • increased cellular metabolism eg. increased glycogenolysis in liver and muscle
  • uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation (ie. heat produced instead of ATP)
93
Q

Describe the process of increased thyroxine

A
  • in response to TRH and TSH

- increased basal metabolic rate

94
Q

Describe the activation of arrector pili muscles

A
  • smooth muscles are innervated by SNS (α1) receptors
  • contraction pulls the hair upright and dimples the skin, giving goose bumps
  • compresses the sebaceous glands which lubricates the skin
  • traps a layer of warm air around the skin
95
Q

Describe a first degree burn

  • what is effected?
  • what does it look like and why?
  • are there blisters?
  • what does the skin retain?
  • how long does it take to heal?
A
  • only epidermis affected
  • red, dry, painful because of the inflammation sensitising nerve endings
  • no blisters
  • skin retains a water and bacterial barrier
  • heals within 7 - 10 days
96
Q

Describe a second degree burn

  • what is affected?
  • what does it look like and why?
  • how long does it take to heal?
  • it can look ____
  • what remains intact?
  • what may be lost?
A
  • epidermis and varying amounts of the dermis affected
  • painful, moist, red and blistered because water proof keratin layer gone
  • heal 1-2 weeks
  • can look waxy
  • hair follicles and sweat glands remain intact
  • some tactile receptors may be lost
97
Q

Describe a third degree burn

  • where is it?
  • what does it look like?
  • is there pain? If not, why not?
  • what may be required?
A
  • extends into the subcutaneous tissue
  • waxy white or deep red or black
  • hard dry and leathery
  • no pain because nerve endings are destroyed
  • may require skin grafting
98
Q

Why is fluid loss a major consideration for burn sufferers?

A

because the waterproofing epidermal layer has gone

99
Q

How can we work out the fluid replacement?

A

using the rule of nines to find the amount of body burnt and weight of person

100
Q

Describe the rule of nines

A

For adults:

  • head 9%
  • upper limb 9% each
  • trunk 36%
  • genitalia 1%
  • lower limb each 18%
101
Q

What are potential complications of severe burns directly related to skin function? (4 things)

A
  • dehydration and hypovolemic shock (shock from loss of blood pressure)
  • infection/sepsis
  • hypothermia (due to large areas of evaporative heat loss)
102
Q

What are potential complications of severe burns not directly related to skin function? (5 things)

A
  • electrolyte imbalance
  • hypo-metabolism
  • gastrointestinal ulceration
  • renal failure
  • respiratory dysfunction
103
Q

The presence of what two fibres enable the dermis to tolerate limited stretching?

A

Collagen fibres and elastic fibres

104
Q

Collagen fibres are very

A

Strong and resist stretching, but are easily bent and twisted

105
Q

elastic fibres permit

A

stretching and then recoil to their original length

106
Q

Ageing, hormonal changes, and the destructive effects of ultraviolet radiation permanently reduces

A

the elasticity of the dermis and the results are wrinkles and sagging skin

107
Q

What is the acronym to remember the order of layer so the epidermis?

A

CLGSB

Class 3 (41 decks)

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