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3) Mammalian Physiology > Set 7 (Part I) > Flashcards

Set 7 (Part I) Flashcards

1
Q

What detects a decrease in blood volume and blood pressure?

A
  • Volume receptors in the atria

- Carotid and aortic baroreceptors

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2
Q

How does a decrease in blood pressure affect the cardiovascular system?

A
  • Increase in cardiac output
  • Vasoconstriction (vagus nerve, epinephrine)
  • Increase in BP
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3
Q

How does a decrease in blood pressure affect behaviour?

A
  • Thirst causes increased water intake
  • ECF and ICF volume increases
  • Increase in BP
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4
Q

How does a decrease in blood pressure affect the kidneys?

A
  • Conserve H2O to minimize further volume loss

- ADH (reabsorption of water in tubules)

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5
Q

When would a decrease in blood volume or blood pressure occur?

A

Major bleeding or extreme dehydration

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6
Q

How does an increase in blood pressure affect the cardiovascular system?

A
  • Decrease in cardiac output
  • Vasodilation
  • Decrease blood pressure
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7
Q

How does an increase in blood pressure affect the kidneys?

A
  • Excrete salts and water in urine
  • Decrease in ECF and ICF volume
  • Decrease blood pressure
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8
Q

Describe the process of blood transportation to the kidneys.

A
  • Renal artery brings blood to the kidneys
  • After filtration through the kidneys (20% of blood), the fluid leaves through the renal vein
  • The rest of the blood enters the capillary system that surrounds the tubules of the kidney
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9
Q

How are the kidneys connected to the bladder?

A

Ureters

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10
Q

How are the contents of the bladder emptied?

A

Through the urethra

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11
Q

How much water can the bladder contain?

A

2 cups

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12
Q

How does caffeine and alcohol affect the urine output?

A
  • They are diuretics, so they increase urine output

- Thirst mechanism increases as well

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13
Q

What are the functional units of the kidneys?

A

Nephrons

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14
Q

What is the calyx?

A
  • Also called the renal pelvis
  • Collecting ducts from individual filtering units
  • Empty into the ureter
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15
Q

What are the differences between the male and female urethra?

A
  • Urethra passes through the prostate in males

- Urethra is much longer in males

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16
Q

What causes men to urinate more slowly and frequently as they age?

A
  • Prostate gland enlarges due to andropose

- Prostate squeezes on the urethra, which decreases in diameter

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17
Q

What consequences does a shorter urethra cause in women?

A

More prone to bladder infections

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18
Q

How many nephrons are there in the kidney?

A

A million

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19
Q

What sits in the renal cortex?

A
  • Bowman’s capsule
  • Proximal and distal tubules
  • Start of the collecting duct
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20
Q

What sits in the renal medulla?

A

Loop of Henle

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21
Q

What are the two components of a nephron?

A
  • Vascular component

- Tubular component

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22
Q

Where does the blood that is not filtered by the glomerulus travel to?

A
  • Efferent arteriole, which breaks down into capillaries

- Serve in ongoing absorption and excretion through the tubules

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23
Q

How may substances be excreted if they are not filtered through the glomerulus?

A

Via the capillary network that surrounds the tubule

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24
Q

What are the two distinct regions within the nephrons of the kidney?

A
  • Renal cortex

- Renal medulla

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25
Q

Where is the dominant portion of the vascular component?

A
  • The glomerulus

- Tight ball of capillaries located within the Bowman’s capsule

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26
Q

What is the filtered fluid of the glomerulus like? What does it become as it passes through the tubules?

A
  • The filtered fluid is like plasma

- Becomes filtrate as it passes through the tubules

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27
Q

How does the diameter of the afferent arteriole compare to the efferent arteriole?

A
  • Afferent arteriole has a wider diameter than the efferent arteriole
  • High hydrostatic pressure, which promotes filtration through the glomerulus
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28
Q

Describe the vascular route through the nephron.

A
  • Afferent arteriole
  • Glomerulus
  • Efferent arteriole
  • Peritubular capillaries
  • Venules
  • Renal vein
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29
Q

What are peritubular capillaries?

A
  • Surround the tubular part of the nephron

- Supply the blood for the exchange with the fluid in the tubular lumen

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30
Q

What is the structure of the Bowman’s capsule membrane?

A
  • Double epithelial cell-layered structure
  • Single layer of epithelial cell (capillary lumen)
  • Podocytes are fused to the endothelial cells that make up the glomerulus (lumen of Bowman’s capsule)
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31
Q

What structure of the nephron creates an osmotic gradient?

A

The loop of Henle in the renal medulla

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32
Q

What occurs at the descending limb of Henle?

A
  • Permeable to water (water moves out)

- Not permeable to salt

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33
Q

What occurs at the ascending limb of Henle?

A
  • Thicker epithelium
  • Not permeable to water
  • Permeable to salt (salt moves out)
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34
Q

What controls the concentration of urine? What hormone acts on that region?

A
  • Distal tubule

- ADH, aldosterone

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35
Q

What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A

The ascending limb of Henle passes through a fork created by the afferent and efferent arteriole

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36
Q

Is glomerular filtration discriminant? What does it let pass through?

A
  • Non-discriminant

- Blood cells and plasma proteins are not filtered

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37
Q

What occurs to 20% of the plasma that enters the glomerulus? What occurs to 80% of the plasma?

A
  • 20% of the plasma that enters the glomerulus is filtered

- 80% of the plasma that enters the glomerulus is not filtered and leaves through the efferent arteriole

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38
Q

What are RBCs and WBCs or damaged tubular cells in a urine sample a sign of?

A
  • Problem with the kidneys

- Infection: largely WBCs and some RBCs

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39
Q

Why would you see WBCs and some RBCs in urine during an infection?

A
  • Inflammation makes cell leaky

- If the cells that are filtering in the glomerulus are leaky, they might let WBCs and RBCs pass through

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40
Q

What is tubular reabsorption? Is it selective?

A
  • Highly selective

- Movement of filtered substances from the tubular lumen into the peritubular capillaries

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41
Q

What is tubular secretion? Is it selective?

A
  • Selective movement of non-tubular filtered substances

- From the peritubular capillaries into the tubular lumen (for excretion)

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42
Q

Urine results from which three basic renal processes?

A
  • Glomerular filtration
  • Tubular reabsorption
  • Tubular secretion
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43
Q

What is the important statement to remember?

A

Anything filtered or secreted but not absorbed is excreted

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44
Q

To be filtered, a substance must pass through what?

A
  1. The pores between the endothelial cells of the glomerular capillary
  2. Acellular basement membrane
  3. Filtration slits between the foot processes of the podocytes of the inner layer of Bowman’s capsule
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45
Q

What is the effect of glomerular capillary blood pressure? Why?

A
  • Favours filtration
  • Afferent arteriole is much wider than efferent arteriole
  • Blood is rushing through the complex at a HIGH pressure
  • Hydrostatic force
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46
Q

Fluid moves from ____ pressure to ____ pressure in the glomerulus.

A

high

low

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47
Q

What is the effect of plasma-colloid osmotic pressure?

A

Opposes filtration

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48
Q

What causes the plasma-colloid osmotic pressure?

A
  • Larger plasma proteins cannot be filtered across the glomerulus membrane and enter Bowman’s capsule
  • They exert a colloid osmotic pressure on the filtered fluid in the Bowman’s capsule
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49
Q

What is the effect of Bowman’s capsule hydrostatic pressure?

A

Opposes filtration

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50
Q

What causes Bowman’s capsule hydrostatic pressure?

A

Fluid pressure in Bowman’s capsule opposes filtration

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51
Q

Which pressure may increase in the case of a blockage, such as kidney stones?

A
  • Bowman’s capsule hydrostatic pressure

- Causes inflammation, pain, and damages the kidney

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52
Q

What are the three forces involved in filtration?

A
  • Glomerular capillary blood pressure
  • Plasma-colloid osmotic pressure
  • Bowman’s capsule hydrostatic pressure
53
Q

How does the concentration of urine change from the cortex to the medulla of the descending loop of Henle?

A

Concentration increases

54
Q

What is the urine concentration in the thick ascending limb?

A
  • Removal of solute

- Creates hyposmotic fluid

55
Q

What states would influence reabsorption by the distal tubule?

A
  • Dehydration: concentrated urine (more reabsorbed)

- High blood pressure: dilute urine (less reabsorbed)

56
Q

What is absorbed in the proximal tubule? Is it passive or active transport?

A
  • HCO3- (passive)
  • NaCl (active)
  • H2O (passive)
  • Nutrients (active)
  • K+ (passive)
57
Q

What is secreted in the proximal tubule?

A
  • H+ (active)

- NH3 (passive)

58
Q

What is absorbed in the descending loop of Henle?

A

H2O (passive)

59
Q

What is absorbed in the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle? Is it active or passive?

A
  • NaCl (passive)

- Inner medulla

60
Q

What is absorbed in the thick segment of the ascending limb of Henle? Is it active or passive?

A
  • NaCl (active)

- Outer medulla

61
Q

What is absorbed in the distal tubule? Is it passive or active transport?

A
  • NaCl (active)
  • H2O (passive)
  • HCO3 (active)
62
Q

What is secreted in the distal tubule? Is it passive or active transport?

A
  • K+ (active)

- H+ (active)

63
Q

What is absorbed in the outer medulla of the distal tubule?

A

NaCl (active)

64
Q

What is absorbed in the inner medulla of the collecting duct?

A
  • Urea (passive)

- H2O (passive)

65
Q

What allows for the absorption of water in the collecting duct? What does that contribute to?

A
  • Absorption of urea
  • Contributes to the hyperosmolarity found in the medulla
  • Important in the countercurrent mechanism of exchange
66
Q

Where is the highest osmolarity found in the nephron?

A
  • In the inner medulla

- Loop of Henle and collecting duct

67
Q

As a result of NaCl movement out of the tubule into the medullary, what does the interstitial fluid become?

A

Hypertonic

68
Q

How does the histology of the ascending limb differ from the descending limb?

A

Ascending limb is much thicker and limits the diffusion of most molecules

69
Q

What occurs in terms of osmolarity of urine at the distal tubule?

A

Osmolarity decreases as NaCl has diffused into the interstitial fluid

70
Q

What is the structure that makes concentrated urine? What structure maintains the osmotic gradient?

A
  • Collecting duct: makes concentrated urine

- Loop of Henle: maintains osmotic gradient

71
Q

The water permeability of the _________ is adjustable.

A

collecting duct

72
Q

How is the permeability of the collecting duct adjusted?

A

Adding or removing aquaporins

73
Q

Describe how vasopressin causes insertion of water pores into the apical membrane of the collecting duct.

A
  1. Vasopressin binds to membrane receptor
  2. cAMP second messenger
  3. Insertion of water pores into the apical membrane (storage vesicles)
74
Q

How does the osmolarity of the medullary interstitial fluid compare to the osmolarity of the vasa recta? What does that cause?

A
  • Osmolarity of the medullary interstitial fluid is lower than the osmolarity of the vasa recta
  • Pulls water into the blood by osmosis
75
Q

How does high osmolarity cause vasopressin release?

A
  • Signals hypothalamic osmoreceptors
  • Interneurons to hypothalamus
  • Hypothalamic neurons synthesize vasopressin and is released from the posterior pituitary
76
Q

How does decreased atrial stretch due to low blood volume cause vasopressin release?

A
  • Atrial stretch receptor
  • Sensory neuron to hypothalamus
  • Hypothalamic neurons synthesize vasopressin and is released from the posterior pituitary
77
Q

How does decreased blood pressure due to low blood volume cause vasopressin release?

A
  • Carotid and aortic baroreceptors
  • Sensory neuron to hypothalamus
  • Hypothalamic neurons synthesize vasopressin and is released from the posterior pituitary
78
Q

How does plasma osmolarity affect vasopressin release?

A

As plasma osmolarity increases, the levels of vasopressin secreted does as well

79
Q

What two factors can affect filtration in the kidney?

A

1) Myogenic regulation

2) Tubuloglomerular feedback

80
Q

How does myogenic regulation respond to an increase in arterial pressure?

A

1) Renal afferent arteriole is stretched

2) Vascular smooth muscle responds by CONTRACTING (increases resistance)

81
Q

What is the function of the myogenic regulation?

A

The kidney does not want an increase of blood from an increase in arterial pressure, so it contracts to increase resistance

82
Q

Which tubule is the juxtaglomerular apparatus located?

A

Distal tubule

83
Q

What kind of cells are at the fork of the juxtaglomerular apparatus? What are they called in the wall of the afferent arteriole?

A
  • Smooth muscle cells

- Afferent arteriole: granular cells

84
Q

What is the function of the macula densa in the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A

Cells that act to detect changes in salt level in the fluid passing by them

85
Q

What does the macula densa do in response to a larger quantity of fluid passing through the tubule?

A
  • More salt is detected

- Causes the macula densa to release adenosine

86
Q

What does adenosine do?

A
  • Acts as a paracrine regulator causing vasoconstriction at adjacent granular cells (afferent arteriole)
  • Resistance increases
  • Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus decreases
  • Glomerular filtration rate decreases
87
Q

What part of the nephron forms the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
A) Bowman’s capsule
B) Where the collecting duct joins the ureter
C) Where the ascending limb of Henle joins the distal tubule
D) Where the proximal tubule joins the descending limb
E) Where the descending limb joins the ascending limb

A

C) Where the ascending limb of Henle joins the distal tubule

88
Q

What happens to the glomerular filtration rate when the afferent arteriole dilates?
A) Increases
B) Decreases
C) Stays the same

A

A) Increases

89
Q 
The plasma is most similar in chemical composition to the fluid in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A) Proximal tubule
B) Collecting duct
C) Distal tubule
D) Bowman's capsule
E) Ascending limb of the loop of Henle
A

D) Bowman’s capsule

90
Q 
"Secretion" in a nephron always refers to transport of
A) Water into the nephron lumen
B) Water out of the nephron lumen
C) A solute into the nephron lumen
D) A solute out of the nephron lumen
A

C) A solute into the nephron lumen

91
Q 
After drinking a large volume of water, compensation is primarily achieved by a decrease in the level of the hormone 
A) Aquaporin
B) Aldosterone
C) Vasopressin
D) Atrial natriuretic peptide
A

C) Vasopressin

92
Q

Aldosterone secretion will be _______ by an increase in plasma potassium.
A) increased
B) decreased
C) not changed

A

A) increased

93
Q 
An 83–year–old woman with severe orthostatic hypotension is given Florinef, a potent aldosterone agonist. In addition to following her blood pressure, what parameter should also be monitored?
A) Heart rate
B) Serum potassium
C) Serum sodium
D) Serum chloride
E) Serum bicarbonate
A

B) Serum potassium

94
Q 
The hormone that most directly influences Na + balance in the body is
A) Vasopressin
B) Angiotensin
C) Renin
D) Aldosterone
E) Atrial natriuretic peptide
A

D) Aldosterone

95
Q 
Eating salty dry food without drinking will cause (before any response) a(n) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in body fluid osmolarity and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in the volume of the body fluids.
A) Decrease; no change
B) Decrease; an increase
C) Decrease; a decrease
D) Increase; no change
E) Increase; an increase
A

D) Increase; no change

96
Q

The vasa recta are the _______.
A) peritubular capillaries associated with the loop of Henle
B) Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
C) Kidney cells that produce renin
D) Liver cells that produce angiotensinogen

A

A) peritubular capillaries associated with the loop of Henle

97
Q

Where are mesangial cells found?

A

Between and around the glomerular capillaries

98
Q

What is the function of mesangial cells?

A

They possess actin-like filaments that enable them to contact and alter blood flow through capillaries

99
Q

What are granular cells?

A

Mechanoreceptors that secrete renin in response to a decrease in BP in the afferent arteriole

100
Q

What are macula densa cells?

A

Chemoreceptors that monitor NaCl content going into the distal tubule, altering their absorption

101
Q

Define the glomerular filtration rate.

A

The volume of fluid that filters into the Bowman’s capsule per unit of time

102
Q

What three hormones act to increase blood pressure?

A
  • Vasopressin
  • Angiotensin II
  • Aldosterone
103
Q

What hormone acts to decrease blood pressure?

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide

104
Q

What is myogenic regulation?

A

Intrinsic ability of vascular smooth muscle to respond to pressure changes

105
Q

What is the myogenic response in response to stretch in the afferent arteriole?

A

Vascular smooth muscle CONTRACTS

106
Q

What is the tubuloglomerular feedback?

A

Paracrine signaling mechanism through which changes in fluid flowing through the loop of Henle influence GFR

107
Q

What is the tubuloglomerular feedback in response to an increase in GFR?

A

1) Flow through tubule increases
2) Flow past macula densa cells increase
3) Paracrine signal (adenosine) from macula densa cells to afferent arteriole
4) Afferent arteriole constricts
5) GFR decreases

108
Q

Is the osmolarity of the collecting duct cell lower or higher than the osmolarity of the vasa recta? What makes you say that?

A
  • Osmolarity is higher in the vasa recta

- Because water moves from the cell to the vasa recta by osmosis

109
Q

People who inherit vasopressin V2 receptor deficiency will have urine that is dilute or concentrated?

A

Dilute because there is less water reabsorption

110
Q

Why is less urine produced overnight than during the day?

A
  • Vasopressin secretion shows a circadian rhythm

- Increased secretion (increased absorption of water) overnight

111
Q

Would vasopressin secretion be increased or decreased with dehydration?

A

Increased

112
Q

What would occur if there was no high osmolarity in the medullary interstitium?

A

There would be no concentration gradient for osmotic movement of water out of the collecting duct

113
Q

If a nephron has a shorter loop of Henle (does not dip as deep into the medulla), how would the concentration at the tip of the loop compare to a regular loop?

A

The concentration would be lower

114
Q

What is the net result of the countercurrent multiplier in the kidney? What does it produce? What is hyperosmotic and what is hypoosmotic?

A
  • Hyperosmotic interstitial fluid in the medulla

- Hypoosmotic filtrate leaving the loop of Henle

115
Q

Why doesn’t the water leaving the descending limb of Henle dilute the interstitial fluid of the medulla?

A
  • Because the capillaries of the vasa recta remove the water

- Plays an important role in keeping the medullary solute concentration high

116
Q

What hormone controls sodium balance?

A

Aldosterone

117
Q

If a person experiences hyperkalemia, what happens to resting membrane potential and the excitability of neurons and the myocardium?

A
  • Resting membrane potential depolarizes

- Excitable tissues fire one action potential but are unable to repolarize to fire a second one

118
Q

What controls physiological aldosterone secretion from the adrenal cortex? (2)

A
  • Increased extracellular potassium concentration

- Decreased blood pressure

119
Q

What do sympathetic neurons stimulate in response to decreased blood pressure?

A

Stimulate granular cells to secrete renin

120
Q

When fluid flow in the distal tubule decreases, what do macula densa cells signal granular cells to do?

A

Secrete renin

121
Q

What are the effects of angiotensin II?

A
  • Increases vasopressin
  • Stimulates thirst
  • Systemic vasoconstrictor
  • Increases sympathetic output to the heart
  • Increases proximal tubule Na+ reabsorption (aldosterone)
122
Q

How does decreased blood flow in the renal arteries cause elevated renin levels?

A
  • Decreases pressure in the afferent arteriole
  • Decreases GFR
  • Both events stimulate renin release
123
Q

Why is it more efficient to put ACE in the pulmonary vasculature than in the systemic vasculature?

A

All blood passes through the pulmonary blood vessels with each circuit

124
Q

What are the actions of ANP at afferent arterioles?

A
  • Vasodilation to increase GFR

- Inhibits renin secretion

125
Q

What are the actions of ANP in the nephron?

A

Decrease Na+ and water reabsorption

126
Q

What hormones does ANP influence?

A

Inhibits renin, aldosterone, and vasopressin secretion

127
Q

What are the effects of hypokalemia?

A
  • More difficult for hyperpolarized neurons and muscles to fire action potentials
  • Failure of respiratory muscles and the heart
128
Q

Glucose is found in the filtrate and not in the urine.
A) True
B) False

A

A) True

3) Mammalian Physiology (24 decks)

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