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3) Mammalian Physiology > Set 6 (Part II) > Flashcards

Set 6 (Part II) Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three basic functions of the respiratory system? What is it also involved in?

A

1) Exchange gas
2) Control pH of the body
3) Protect the body from entry of pathogens
- Also involved in producing vocalization

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2
Q

What is the voluntary control center of the brain? What is the involontary control center?

A
  • Voluntary: cerebral cortex

- Involuntary: pneumotaxic center and apneustic center of the pons

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3
Q

What signals does the pons receive? What does it relay to?

A
  • Receives signals from the chemoreceptors

- Relays to the medullary rhythmicity area

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4
Q

Which area of the brain can override the “automatic” control of breathing?

A

Cerebral cortex

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5
Q

What areas of the medulla represent the medullary rhythmicity? What information does it relay?

A
  • Inspiratory and expiratory areas

- Relay information to the respiratory muscles that drive breathing

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6
Q

What is the primary trigger for chemoreceptors?

A

Changes in levels of CO2

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7
Q

Which areas of breathing may be controlled?

A

Diaphragm and intercostal muscles (skeletal muscle)

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8
Q

What drives the changes in pressure between atmospheric pressure and pressure in the lungs?

A

Expansion and contraction of the rib cage

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9
Q

What is external respiration?

A

Filling of the lungs with air

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10
Q

What is pulmonary gas exchange?

A

Exchange of gas within capillary beds

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11
Q

What is pulmonary ventilation?

A

Filling of the bronchus with air

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12
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

Systemic tissue and gas exchange that occurs throughout the body

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13
Q

Which respiratory control centers regulate breathing?

A
  • Brain

- Heart (chemoreceptor and baroreceptor)

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14
Q

What are the three anatomical divisions of the respiratory system?

A
  • Upper respiratory tract
  • Lower respiratory tract
  • Accessory structures
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15
Q

What forms the upper respiratory tract?

A
  • Organs located outside of the chest

- Mouth, nasal cavity, tongue, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box)

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16
Q

What is the function of the upper respiratory tract?

A
  • Conducting zone

- Keeps the lower respiratory half sterile through cilia and mucus

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17
Q

What are the accessory structures of the respiratory system?

A
  • Diaphragm
  • Intercostal muscles
  • Rib cage
  • Oral cavity
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18
Q

Differentiate the right and left lung. Where is the cardiac notch located?

A
  • Right lung has three lobes, while left lung has two

- Cardiac notch is located in the left lung because the heart points to the left

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19
Q

What are the muscles of inspiration?

A
  • External intercostal

- Diaphragm

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20
Q

What are the muscles of expiration?

A
  • Internal intercostal

- Abdominal muscles

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21
Q

Which muscles function at rest?

A
  • Muscles of inspiration ONLY

- Diaphragm does 75% of the work

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22
Q

Which muscles function during labor?

A
  • Muscles of expiration are activated

- Abdominal muscles and internal intercostal

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23
Q

Which muscles are also implicated in breathing?

A
  • Sternocleidomastoids

- Scalenes

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24
Q

What does the trachea split into?

A

Trachea splits into right and left primary bronchi –> bronchioles

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25
Q

As the structures of the respiratory tract become smaller (trachea to bronchioles to alveolar sacs to alveoli), what tissues dominate?

A
  • Larger structures: cartilage (ex: trachea)

- Smaller structures: smooth muscles

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26
Q

Where does gas exchange occur?

A

Within alveoli

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27
Q

What is the function of the hairs lining the nose?

A

Serve as a filter to screen particles from the air

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28
Q

What is the function of the turbinates in the nose?

A
  • Provide a large mucus-covered surface over which the air must travel
  • Moistens the air
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29
Q

What is the function of mucus in the nose?

A
  • Moistens the air

- Traps particles before the air enters the respiratory system

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30
Q

What explains a stuffy nose?

A

Turbinates become swollen, which partially blocks breathing

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31
Q

What connects the upper and lower airways?

A

Pharynx (throat)

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32
Q

What does the pharynx extend from and to?

A
  • The base of the skull

- To the esophagus

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33
Q

What are the three parts of the pharynx?

A
  • Nasopharynx
  • Oropharynx
  • Laryngopharynx
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34
Q

How is the pharynx implicated in speech?

A

Pharynx changes shape to produce certain vowel sounds

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35
Q

Where does choking often occur?

A

In the pharynx

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36
Q

What organs are located within the lower respiratory tract?

A
  • Located within the thorax

- Trachea, bronchial tree, lungs

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37
Q

What does the trachea connect?

A

The larynx to the primary bronchi

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38
Q

Which structure of the lower respiratory tract is considered to be part of the open airway?

A

Trachea

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39
Q

What tissues compose the trachea?

A

Smooth muscle in which are embedded cartilage C rings

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40
Q

What is the function of ciliated epithelium in the trachea?

A
  • Produces mucus through goblet cells
  • Captures particles
  • Pushes things up into the pharynx, which is coughed out
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41
Q

What are the three layers to bronchial walls?

A
  • Epithelial
  • Smooth muscle
  • Connective tissue
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42
Q

What are bronchial walls similar to?

A

Tracheal walls

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43
Q

What are the pores of Kohn?

A
  • Function in communication with adjacent alveoli
  • Openings between the alveolus, allowing bacteria to enter
  • Involved in pathology of diseases of the lungs
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44
Q

What are the primary gas exchange structures?

A

Alveoli

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45
Q

Describe the subdivisions of bronchioles.

A
  • Bronchioles
  • Alveolar ducts
  • Alveolar sacs
  • Alveoli
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46
Q

What is the respiratory membrane?

A

The barrier between which gases are exchanged by alveolar air and blood

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47
Q

What does the respiratory membrane consist of?

A
  • Alveolar epithelium
  • Capillary endothelium
  • Their joined basement membranes
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48
Q

What is found within the surface of the respiratory membrane inside each alveolus?

A

Surfactant

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49
Q

What is the function of surfactant? What cells produce it?

A
  • Reduces surface tension

- Produced by type II cells

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50
Q

What is inspiration?

A

The process of taking air into the lungs

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51
Q

What is expiration?

A

The process of letting air out of the lungs during a breathing cycle

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52
Q

What is the inspiration process?

A
  • Activate phase of ventilation (contraction)
  • Diaphragm contracts and moves downward
  • Thoracic cavity increases in volume
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53
Q

What occurs when the thoracic cavity increases in volume?

A
  • Decreases the intra-alveolar pressure

- Air flows into the lungs

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54
Q

What is the expiration process?

A
  • Diaphragm relaxes and elastic recoil of the lungs and thoracic cage
  • Decreases thoracic volume and increases the intra-alveolar pressure
  • Pushes air out of the lungs
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55
Q

Pulmonary ventilation must establish two gas pressure gradients. What are they?

A
  • Pressure within alveoli of lungs is lower than atmospheric pressure to produce inspiration
  • Pressure within alveoli of lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure to produce expiration
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56
Q

What are pressure gradients established by?

A

Changes in the size of the thoracic cavity that are produced by contraction and relaxation of muscles

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57
Q

What is the pleural space created by?

A

Two membranes that surround the lungs (parietal and visceral pleura)

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58
Q

Diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume _______.

A

increases

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59
Q

Diaphragm relaxes, thoracic volume _______.

A

decreases

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60
Q

What is atmospheric pressure?

A

The air pressure of the atmosphere outside the body’s airways

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61
Q

What is alveolar pressure?

A
  • Intrapulmonary pressure

- Pressure at the far end of the internal airways

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62
Q

What is intrapleural pressure?

A
  • The fluid pressure of the pleural fluid between the parietal and visceral pleura
63
Q

What are the parietal and visceral pleura?

A
  • Parietal: outer membrane attached to the chest wall

- Visceral: membrane surrounding the lungs

64
Q

Define compliance.

A

Ability of pulmonary tissues to stretch, making inspiration possible

65
Q

What are the effects on alveolar, and intrapleural pressure when the diaphragm moves downwards?

A
  • Alveolar pressure decreases

- Intrapleural pressure decreases

66
Q

What pressure changes are required to allow for air to move into the lungs?

A

Alveolar pressure must drop below atmospheric pressure

67
Q

Expiration is caused by ________.

A

elastic recoil

68
Q

What is surfactant formed from? What is it?

A
  • Lipoprotein formed from protein and phospholipid secretions
  • By type II cells in the walls of the alveolus
69
Q

What are the functions of surfactant?

A
  • Reduce surface tension
  • Prevent alveolar collapse during exhalation
  • Contributes to the ability of cells to have elastic recoil
70
Q

What is the function of surfactant in terms of compliance?

A
  • Surfactant acts to decrease attraction between water molecules
  • Promotes the expansion of the lungs
  • Acts against the tendency to recoil
71
Q

What would the effect of a lack of surfactant be in terms of compliance?

A
  • Water molecules would be attracted to each other
  • Decreases the size of the alveolus
  • Increases the tendency to recoil
72
Q

Which ability affecting compliance is missing in premature babies?

A
  • Type II alveolar cells, which produce surfactant

- Mothers are given a shot to allow the baby to utilize surfactant to breathe

73
Q

What are the primary phagocytes of the respiratory system?

A

Alveolar macrophages

74
Q

What are the functions of alveolar macrophages?

A
  • Clearing the space of infectious, toxic, or allergic particles
  • Secretion of lysozyme, antimicrobial peptides and proteases
75
Q

Exchange of gases in the lungs take place between what?

A

Alveolar air and blood flowing through lung capillaries

76
Q

What are the three factors that determine the amount of oxygen that diffuses into blood?

A
  • Total functional surface area of the respiratory membrane
  • Respiratory volume
  • Alveolar ventilation
77
Q

What factor that determines the amount of oxygen that diffuses in the blood is compromised by smoking?

A

The reduction of the functional surface area

78
Q

What structural surfaces must oxygen pass through to diffuse from alveolar air to blood?

A
  • Single layer alveolar epithelial cells
  • Small interstitial space for diffusion
  • Single layer of endothelial cells
79
Q

Why is blood distributed through capillaries in a thin layer?

A

So each red blood cell comes close to the alveolar air

80
Q

Increased cellular respiration during exercise causes a rise in plasma _____.

A

CO2

81
Q

A rise in plasma CO2 is detected by what?

A
  • Central chemoreceptors in the brain

- Peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid sinus and aorta

82
Q

The nervous system signals to respiratory muscles in response to an increase in CO2. Which muscles react?

A
  • Effector muscles increase their contraction/relaxation cycles
  • Increases the rate of respiration
  • Increases the rate of CO2 loss from the body
83
Q

What is the primary regulator of pulmonary function?

A

CO2, which determines the rate of the respiratory cycle

84
Q

Sensors from the nervous system provide feedback to which center?

A

Medullary rhythmicity center

85
Q

What changes influence the medullary rhythmicity area?

A
  • O2
  • CO2
  • pH of arterial blood
86
Q

What does CO2 act on? What happens if it increases, or decreases?

A
  • Central chemoreceptors in the medulla
  • Increases: faster breathing
  • Decreases: slower breathing
87
Q

What causes a decrease in pH?

A

Less CO2

88
Q

What does a decrease in pH act on?

A
  • Stimulates central chemoreceptors to slow breathing

- Stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies

89
Q

What does an increase or decrease of arterial O2 act on?

A

Has little influence if it stays above a certain level

90
Q

How does the cerebral cortex influence breathing?

A
  • By increasing or decreasing rate

- By increasing or decreasing strength of respirations

91
Q

What pathological symptoms occur in chronic bronchitis?

A
  • Enlarged submucosal gland
  • Inflammation of epithelium
  • Mucus accumulation
  • Hyperinflamation of alveoli
92
Q

What is the consequence of an inflammation of the epithelium?

A

Narrowing of the air, which reduces respiratory volume

93
Q

What pathological symptoms occur in asthma?

A
  • Smooth muscle constriction
  • Edema of respiratory mucosa
  • Excessive mucus production obstruct airways
94
Q

What pathological symptoms occur in emphysema?

A
  • Enlargement and destruction of alveolar wall
  • Elastin fibers are destroyed
  • Oxygen-carrying capacity is significantly impact
  • Requires an oxygen tank
95
Q

Compliance in alveoli without surfactant is ____ compliance in alveoli with surfactant.

A) Greater than
B) Less than
C) Equal to

A

B) Less than

96
Q

At the end of inspiration, lung volume is ____.

A) Maximum
B) Minimum
C) Moving between maximum and minimum

A

A) Maximum

97
Q

At the end of expiration, intra-alveolar pressure is _____.

A) Maximum
B) Minimum
C) In between maximum and minimum

A

A) Maximum

98
Q

Velocity of air flow is greatest in the _____.

A) Trachea
B) Primary bronchi
C) Secondary bronchi
D) Bronchioles

A

A) Trachea

Because it has the widest circumference

99
Q

Lung compliance decreases as people age. If nothing else changes, loss of compliance means ____.

A) The work of breathing increases
B) The lungs are easier to inflate
C) Lung elasticity decreases
D) Airway resistance during inspiration increases

A

A) The work of breathing increases

C) Lung elasticity decreases
D) Airway resistance during inspiration increases

100
Q

At what point in a respiratory cycle is intrapleural pressure greatest?

A) Middle half of inspiration
B) Second half of inspiration
C) End of inspiration
D) During expiration
E) End of expiration
A

E) End of expiration

101
Q

The ciliated epithelium of the trachea and bronchi ______.

A) Helps move air to the lung
B) Helps move mucus to the pharynx
C) Only beats when someone is smoking or around air-borne irritants

A

B) Helps move mucus to the pharynx

102
Q

On its way into the lungs, air passes through _____.

A) Pharynx, larynx, trachea
B) Larynx, pharynx, trachea
C) Pharynx, trachea
D) Larynx, trachea

A

A) Pharynx, larynx, trachea

103
Q

Which air passages of the respiratory system are collapsible?

A

The bronchioles

104
Q

Where is air filtered?

A
  • Trachea

- Bronchi

105
Q

Cigarette smoking paralyzes cilia in the airways an increases mucus production. Why would these effects cause smokers to develop a cough?

A

If cilia cannot move mucus, the mucus collecting in the airways triggers a cough reflex to clear out the mucus

106
Q

Differentiate type I and type II alveolar cells.

A
  • Type I alveolar cells: thin cells used for gas exchange

- Type II alveolar cells: thicker cells that synthesize and secrete a chemical known as surfactant

107
Q

Can lung tissue contract?

A

No, as it does not contain muscle fibers

108
Q

Inspiration occurs when __________ pressure decreases.

A

alveolar

109
Q

How does alveolar pressure change with inspiration and expiration?

A
  • Beginning of inspiration: 0
  • Middle of inspiration: -1
  • End of inspiration/beginning of expiration: 0
  • Middle of expiration: +1
  • End of expiration: 0
110
Q

What is an antagonistic muscle group in the respiratory system?

A

Internal and external intercostal muscles

111
Q

A girl is trying to squeeze herself into a corset. Will she be more successful by taking a deep breath and holding it or by blowing all the air out of her lungs?

A
  • She will be more successful if she exhales deeply

- This will decrease her thoracic volume and pull her lower rib cage inward

112
Q

Why would the loss of the ability to cough increase the risk of respiratory infections?

A

Inability to cough decreases the ability to expel the potentially harmful material trapped in airway mucus

113
Q

How does the intrapleural pressure normally compare to atmospheric pressure?

A

It is normally subatmospheric

114
Q

How does intrapleural pressure change with inspiration and expiration?

A
  • Beginning of inspiration: -3
  • End of inspiration/beginning of expiration: -6
  • End of expiration/beginning of inspiration: -3
115
Q

What happens to intrapleural and alvoelar pressures when a person hiccups?

A

Causes a rapid decrease in both intrapleural and alveolar pressure

116
Q

Is the compliance and elastance of individuals with emphysema high or low? Why?

A
  • Elastic fibers are destroyed
  • High compliance (stretch easily)
  • Low elastance (do not recoil to their resting position during expiration)
  • They must contract their expiratory muscles to force air out that is not leaving from elastic recoil
117
Q

Differentiate bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation.

A
  • Bronchoconstriction: decreases the amount of fresh air that reaches the alveoli
  • Bronchodilation: increases the amount of fresh air that reaches the alveoli
118
Q

How does histamine affect the respiratory system?

A
  • Paracrine signal released by mast cells in response to either tissue damage or an allergic reaction
  • Acts as a powerful bronchoconstrictor
119
Q

In a normal person, which contributes more to the work of breathing:

  • Airway resistance or
  • Lung and chest wall elastance
A

Normally, lung and chest wall elastance contributes more

120
Q

How does the work required for breathing change when a surfactant is not present in the lungs?

A

Work increases

121
Q

Coal miners who spent years inhaling fine coal dust have much of their alveolar surface area covered with scarlike tissue. What happens to their lung compliance as a result?

A

Compliance decreases

122
Q

A cancerous lung tumor has grown into the walls of a group of bronchioles, narrowing their lumens. What has happened to the resistance of air flow in these bronchioles?

A

Resistance of air flow increases

123
Q

When a person fills their lungs maximally, the volume of air in the lungs is known as the ________ capacity. When they exhale all the air they can, the volume of air left in the lungs is the _________.

A
  • total lung capacity

- residual volume

124
Q

How do alveolar gases change with hypoventilation and hyperventilation?

A
  • Hypoventilation: high CO2, low O2

- Hyperventilation: high O2, low CO2

125
Q

What happens to bronchioles when PCO2 decreases and PO2 increases?

A

Bronchioles constrict, shunting air to areas of the lungs with better blood flow

126
Q

List four functions of the respiratory system.

A
  • Gas exchange
  • Vocalization
  • pH regulation
  • Protection
127
Q

Which sets of muscles are used for normal quiet inspiration?

A
  • External intercostals
  • Scalenes
  • Diaphragm
128
Q

Which sets of muscles are used for normal quiet expiration?

A
  • No significant muscle contraction
129
Q

Which sets of muscles are used for active expiration?

A
  • Internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
130
Q

What kind of muscles are the different respiratory muscles?

A

They are all skeletal muscles

131
Q

Compare and contrast compliance and elastance.

A
  • Compliance: ability to deform in response to force

- Elastance: ability to resume original shape after deforming force has been removed

132
Q

Does intrapleural pressure increase or decrease during inspiration?

A

Decrease

133
Q

Does alveolar pressure increase or decrease during expiration?

A

Increase

134
Q

________ usually depends on elastic recoil.

A

Expiration

135
Q

________ is easier when lung compliance decreases.

A

Expiration

136
Q

Lung compliance increases but chest wall compliance decreases as we age. How does that affect the work required for breathing?

A

Work increases

137
Q

Lung compliance increases but chest wall compliance decreases as we age. How does that affect the ease with which lungs inflate?

A

Lungs inflate more easily

138
Q

Lung compliance increases but chest wall compliance decreases as we age. How does that affect lung elastance?

A

Elastance decreases

139
Q

Lung compliance increases but chest wall compliance decreases as we age. How does that affect airway resistance during inspiration?

A

Airway resistance is not affected

140
Q

Will pulmonary surfactant increase, decrease, or not change the work required for breathing?

A

Decrease

141
Q

Will pulmonary surfactant increase, decrease, or not change lung compliance?

A

Increase

142
Q

Will pulmonary surfactant increase, decrease, or not change surface tension in the alveoli?

A

Decrease

143
Q

What is the function of the epiglottis?

A

Covers the larynx and directs the food to the esophagus for digestion to avoid choking

144
Q

What pathology causes emphysema?

A
  • Destruction of alveoli means less surface area for gas exchange
  • PO2 is low in endothelial cells
145
Q

What pathology causes asthma?

A
  • Increased airway resistance (bronchioles constricted) decreases alveolar ventilation
  • PO2 is low in alveoli
  • PO2 is low endothelial cells
146
Q

A lack of _______ would cause lung collapse.

A

surfactant

147
Q

What does surfactant promote? What does it act against?

A
  • Promotes the expansion of the lungs

- Acts against the tendency to recoil

148
Q

In ventilation-perfusion matching, increased CO2 causes bronchioles to __________.

A) dilate and increased O2 causes pulmonary arterioles to constrict
B) dilate and decreased O2 causes pulmonary arterioles to constrict
C) constrict
D) constrict and decreased O2 causes pulmonary arterioles to dilate

A

B) dilate and decreased O2 causes pulmonary arterioles to constrict

149
Q

Where does the most airway resistance in our respiratory system occur?

A) the trachea and bronchi
B) the alveoli
C) the intercostals and scalenes
D) the bronchioles

A

A) the trachea and bronchi

150
Q

Alveolar ventilation refers to the movement of __________.

A) air into and out of the alveoli
B) air into and out of the lungs
C) dissolved gases from the blood to the alveoli
D) dissolved gases from the alveoli to the blood

A

A) air into and out of the alveoli

151
Q

The respiratory tract is lined with?

A) Simple squamous epithelium
B) Stratified cuboidal epithelium
C) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
D) Simple ciliated columnar epithelium

A

C) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

152
Q

Respiratory rate falls as carbon dioxide rises

A) True
B) False

A

B) False

153
Q

What occurs to bronchioles and pulmonary arteries when PCO2 increases and PO2 decreases?

A
  • Bronchioles: dilate

- Pulmonary arteries: constrict

154
Q

What occurs to bronchioles and pulmonary arteries when PCO2 decreases and PO2 increases?

A
  • Bronchioles: constrict

- Pulmonary arteries: dilate

3) Mammalian Physiology (24 decks)

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