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3) Mammalian Physiology > Set 11 (Part I) > Flashcards

Set 11 (Part I) Flashcards

1
Q

Why should we care about reproduction?

A
  • Having a family
  • Preventing pregnancy
  • Preserving fertility
  • Preventing birth defects and disease
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2
Q

How has the number of chemicals registered for commercial use changed since 1979?

A

30% increase

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3
Q

How are we exposed to chemicals?

A

Through industrial releases, contaminated food, household products and cosmetics, and the workplace

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4
Q

What does the increase in exposure to chemicals coincide with?

A
  • Increased rates of infertility
  • Decreasing sperm counts
  • Higher rates of birth defects
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5
Q

What is early puberty in women correlated with?

A

The increased risk for hormone-driven cancers

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6
Q

What are phthalates and BPA found?

A

Toys, food containers, cosmetics, and many other consumer products

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7
Q

Where are PBDEs found?

A
  • Flame retardants
  • Household furniture
  • Electronics
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8
Q

What abnormalities concerning male reproduction has increased in the past century?

A
  • Fewer baby boys are born
  • Increased number of penis abnormalities
  • Increased number of mental disorders
  • Average sperm count of men is half of what it was
  • 85% of sperm is DNA damaged
  • Damaged sperm is associated with testicular cancer
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9
Q

What are organochlorines?

A
  • Industrial compounds (PCBs)
  • Combustion products
  • Pesticides (DDT)
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10
Q

The use of organochlorines has been restricted since the 1970s, but their use persists. Can you provide examples?

A
  • Continued use of DDT to combat malaria in certain countries
  • They are still used in Mexico and South Africa
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11
Q

What causes organochlorine accumulation?

A

They are liposoluble, and thus capable of bioaccumulating and biomagnifying

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12
Q

How do organochlorines exert their effects?

A
  • Endocrine disruptors

- They are estrogen receptor agonists, enhancing the effects of estrogen

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13
Q

What are the three consequences of organochlorines as endocrine disruptors?

A

1) Antiandrogenic activities
2) Bind the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, modulating estrogen-dependent transcription
3) Bind thyroid hormone binding protein, reducing the effects of thyroid hormone

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14
Q

Which ecosystems contain unusually high levels of environmental contaminants?

A
  • Northern ecosystems
  • Organochlorines, such as PCBs and pesticides
  • They bioaccumulate in the Arctic food chain
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15
Q

What is a complex disease?

A

Disease that cannot be attributed to genetics alone, and must be environmentally-caused as well

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16
Q

How does the consumption of PCBs in Inuit populations compare to Canadian populations? What is observed to be elevated in the blood and breast milk of Inuit mothers?

A
  • Inuit consume 40X more PCBs than Canadians
  • Elevated organochlorines are found in the blood and breast milk of Inuit mothers
  • High rates of diabetes, stillbirths, birth defects, and other complex diseases
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17
Q

When is the body particularly sensitive to endocrine disruption?

A

During early development

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18
Q

What are the effects of maternal consumption of PCB-contaminated fish during pregnancy?

A
  • Retarded gestational development
  • Low birth weights
  • Small head circumference
  • Neurodevelopmental delays
  • Weaker immune response
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19
Q

To measure the effects of organochlorine in rats, how was the exposure administered? Why?

A
  • Through the mouth by food

- To mimic exposure of women in Northern communities

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20
Q

Describe the study design to determine the effects organochlorines in the reproductive functions of male rats.

A

1) Female rats were exposed to varying levels of organochlorines
2) Breeding with male rats that had never been exposed
3) Breeding between the rats
4) Three weeks of lactation without additional OC treatment
5) A) Some pups were sacrificed
5) B) Remaining pups were fed commercial rat chow, and aged to either 60 or 90 days

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21
Q

What were the effects of higher doses of organochlorides (PCBs) in rats?

A
  • Fewer pups per litter
  • Fewer number of implantation sites
  • Increased post-implantation mortality
  • Fewer male pups
  • Fewer percentage of male offspring
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22
Q

What were the effects of organochlorides on reproductive organ development of male rats?

A

Affected the testes, epididymis, ventral prostate, and seminal vesicles

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23
Q

How did maternal exposure to organochlorides affect sperm from adult male offspring?

A

Decreased motility and less progressive

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24
Q

How does the health of the father affect the placenta?

A

The development and function of the placenta is governed by PATERNAL genes

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25
Q

What abnormalities in foetuses were produced from organochloride-exposed rat parents?

A
  • Heart on the right side

- Unilateral cryptorchidism (single testes descending)

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26
Q

What are the two main parts of the uterus? What shape is it?

A
  • Pear-shaped

- Cervix and the body

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27
Q

What does the uterus body cavity’s apex constitute? What does that open into?

A
  • Internal os

- Opens into the cervical canal

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28
Q

What is the cervical canal form at the lower end? What is that open to?

A
  • Lower os

- Opens into the vagina

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29
Q

What is an ectopic pregnancy? Where does it normally occur?

A
  • Development of the fetus in a location other than the uterus
  • Occurs in the fallopian tubes 95% of the time
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30
Q

What do ovarian follicles contain?

A

The developing oocyte

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31
Q

What is oogenesis?

A

Process that results in the formation of a mature egg

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32
Q

What endocrine organs secrete the female sex hormones? What are they?

A
  • The ovaries

- Estrogens and progesterone

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33
Q

Where do oocytes grow? What is that structure surrounded by?

A
  • Grow in a follicle

- The follicle is surrounded by granulosa cells

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34
Q

What allows the granulosa cells to divide and proliferate?

A

Rising levels of estrogen

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35
Q

Describe the names of the follicles during maturation.

A
  • Primary follicle
  • Secondary follicle (multiple layers of granulosa cells and a fluid-filled center with growth hormones)
  • Graafian follicle (mature) (fluid-filled center called the antrum)
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36
Q

What is the most important factor to occur to allow for ovulation to happen?

A

The rise of estrogen

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37
Q

What are the three divisions of the uterine tubes?

A
  • Isthmus
  • Ampulla
  • Infundibulum
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38
Q

Where does fertilization normally occur?

A

IA (ampulla/isthmus) junction

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39
Q

What kind of epithelial cells are contained within the uterus?

A

Ciliated columnar epithelium

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40
Q

What is pelvic inflammatory disease? How may it be treated?

A
  • Swelling of the oviduct due to a pelvic infection

- May be treated with antibiotics

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41
Q

What happens if a pelvic inflammatory disease persists?

A
  • Block the passage of the oviducts
  • Scar tissue
  • Pus outside of the tube can spread the infection to other organs
  • Results in an ectopic pregnancy 25% of the time
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42
Q

What are the three phases of the ovarian cycle? How long does each last?

A

1) Follicular phase (1-14)
2) Ovulation
3) Luteal phase (14-28)

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43
Q

What are the three phases of the uterine cycle? How long does each last?

A

1) Menses (1-7)
2) Proliferative phase (7-14)
3) Secretory phase (14-28)

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44
Q

What occurs during menstruation? How long do menses typically last?

A
  • Spongy uterine wall breaks down
  • Degeneration of tissue, blood, and unfertilized egg are passed out as menstrual flow
  • 4 to 7 days
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45
Q

What occurs during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle?

A

1) FSH (anterior pituitary) begins to rise at the end of the luteal phase, and induce the proliferation of granulosa cells
2) Granulosa cells are stimulated to increase production of estrogen
3) Estrogen promotes the thickening (proliferation) of the uterine lining
4) The peak estrogen positively feeds back to the hypothalamus, causing the release of GnRH, and subsequently LH and FSH
5) The high peak of LH and FSH finishes off the maturation of the oocyte, causing ovulation

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46
Q

How should the rise in FSH in the follicular phase appear on the graph?

A

Should appear in waves

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47
Q

Why does estrogen promote the thickening of the uterine lining?

A

To support an embryo if fertilization occurs

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48
Q

What occurs during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle, assuming there is no fertilization?

A

1) Under the influence of LH, the remaining granulosa cells in the ovary luteinize
2) Become progesterone-secreting luteal cells, forming the corpus luteum
3) Progesterone levels rise and negatively feedback to the hypothalamus, decreasing production of GnRH, and subsequent release of LH and FSH
4) If there is no fertilization, the corpus luteum regresses, decreasing progesterone levels
5) The hypothalamus is induced to secrete GnRH, and the increasing levels of FSH work on the maturation of another follicle to produce the rise in estrogen, re-starting the cycle

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49
Q

What happens during ovulation?

A

The mature egg is released from the follicle

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50
Q

What is the key to induce ovulation? What may potentially block ovulation through this mechanism?

A
  • A spike in LH

- Constant high levels of estrogen block the LH surge and block ovulation

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51
Q

What do estrogen and inhibin instruct the pituitary to do?

A
  • Inhibit FSH

- At the same time, release LH

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52
Q

What occurs to the uterine lining during the luteal phase?

A

Continued growth so that it supports a pregnancy should the oocyte be fertilized

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53
Q

LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce what?

A

Progesterone and estrogen

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54
Q

What do progesterone and estrogen promote during the luteal phase?

A

Promote vascularization of the uterus in preparation for implantation of the fertilized egg

55
Q

What are thecal cells? What do they produce?

A
  • Outer layer of cells underneath the granulosa cells

- Produce testosterone, that is subsequently converted by granulosa cells to estrogen

56
Q

How does a high concentration of estrogen affect the hypothalamus?

A

Induces the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH

57
Q

How does a low concentration of estrogen affect the hypothalamus?

A

Inhibits the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH

58
Q

What is the function of inhibin?

A

Inhibits the release of FSH

59
Q

How does progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum following ovulation, affect the hypothalamus?

A

Inhibits the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH

60
Q

If fertilization does occur, what allows the corpus luteum to be maintained? What is it produced by? How does it act to maintain the CL

A
  • Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)
  • Produced by the placenta
  • Acts to maintain the CL by binding LH receptors, promoting progesterone synthesis
61
Q

Why is progesterone synthesis required for pregnancy?

A

Ensures that the uterine wall is thickened so that embryonic development can occur and pregnancy can continue

62
Q

What occurs to follicles in polycystic ovarian syndrome?

A

Follicles develop, but do not ovulate

63
Q

What are the symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome?

A
  • Highly irregular cycles
  • Cystic follicles
  • Elevated testosterone
  • Abnormal FSH and LH
  • Facial hair
  • Abdominal weight gain
64
Q

What is the treatment for polycystic ovarian syndrome? How is it diagnosed?

A
  • Blood tests and ultrasound diagnosis
  • Birth control prevents the cystic follicles from dominating
  • Diet and surgery
65
Q

What causes excess hair growth in PCOS?

A
  • Testosterone is NOT aromatized to estradiol (estrogen), as normally occurs
  • Testosterone is instead converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which causes hair growth and acne
66
Q

Differentiate the combined and Mini-pill. Who should use the Mini-pill?

A
  • Combined: synthetic estrogen and progestin

- Mini-pill: only progestin (highly reliable, used in nursing)

67
Q

Why are synthetic hormones used in birth control?

A

Natural hormones are broken down by the liver very rapidly

68
Q

What is the mechanism behind the birth control pill?

A
  • Constant levels of estrogen and progesterone inhibit the LH event, preventing ovulation
  • Progesterone also thickens the mucus around the cervix
69
Q

What are other options for birth control, apart from the pill?

A
  • Implants (release progesterone and last up to three years)

- Patch (release estrogen and progesterone and last a week)

70
Q

Where is sperm made? Where does it undergo maturation?

A
  • Synthesized in seminiferous tubules

- Undergoes maturation in the epididymis (ex: gains motility)

71
Q

What is cut when an individual gets a vasectomy?

A
  • The vas deferens

- Vasectomy does not affect spermatogenesis, but the plumbing

72
Q

What are the functions of Sertoli cells?

A

Resorption (cleaning up dead and dying cells)

73
Q

Where are Sertoli and Leydig cells contained, in respect to the seminiferous epithelium?

A
  • Sertoli cells (somatic cells) are contained within the seminiferous epithelium
  • Leydig cells are contained outside the seminiferous epithelium
74
Q

What are spermatogonium?

A

Form the stem-cell supplier pool

75
Q

What is the function of Leydig cells?

A

Produces testosterone

76
Q

What occurs to spermatogonia during spermatogenesis?

A
  • Undergo mitosis, which partially maintains the stem cell supplier pool
  • Once they go through mitosis, they become spermatocytes
77
Q

What occurs to spermatocytes during spermatogenesis?

A
  • Undergoes meiosis I

- Undergoes meiosis II to produce haploid, round, spermatids

78
Q

What occurs to spermatids during spermatogenesis?

A
  • Undergoes spermeogenesis
  • Get rid of their cytoplasm, condense the nuclear material on their head, forming spermatozoa
  • Spermatogonia –> spermatocytes –> spermatids –> spermatozoa
79
Q

What is the most compact cell?

A

Spermatozoa

80
Q

What is the function of the acrosome within spermatozoa?

A

Bag of enzymes, which is required to penetrate the thick protein coat of the egg

81
Q

What is the target of LH in spermatogenesis?

A

Induces the production of testosterone from Leydig cells

82
Q

What is the target of FSH in spermatogenesis?

A
  • Induces the production of spermatocytes and androgen-binding protein (binds testosterone)
  • The target is Sertoli cells
83
Q

Why is the early diagnosis of testicular cancer crucial?

A

Since the doubling time of testis is estimated to be 10 and 30 days

84
Q

Where is Bisphenol A (BPA) found?

A
  • Rigid and translucent polycarbonate plastic

- Canned food and beverages use BPA-resin liners

85
Q

What has exposure of BPA in rats been associated with?

A
  • Hormonal dysfunction

- Prostate tumours

86
Q

What are the consequences of long-term exposure to BPA?

A
  • Infertility
  • Early puberty
  • Breast and prostate cancer
87
Q

What chemical was banned from Canada in 2008?

A

The import and sale of polycarbonate baby bottles containing BPA were banned

88
Q

What is BPA’s mechanism of action? What does it possess high affinity for? What does it possess low affinity for?

A
  • Activates non-classical membrane-bound estrogen receptors
  • High affinity to estrogen-related receptor gamma (non-membrane bound)
  • Low affinity binding to alpha and beta receptors
89
Q

What was the positive control for Dr. Kimmins’ BPA study?

A

Estrogen

90
Q

What histological abnormalities were shown in BPA exposed rats?

A
  • Filling of tubules with abnormal cells

- Cells with detached membrane and increased cytoplasm (ressembles a carcinoma in situ model)

91
Q

Transport of the sperm to the egg is aided by what mechanisms?

A
  • Mucosal secretion

- Prostaglandins in the seminal fluid from the prostate stimulate contractions of the uterus, which help the sperm go up

92
Q

How do the sperm and egg adhere to each other?

A

Proteins expressed on their surface (adhesion proteins)

93
Q

What must sperm penetrate and bind to?

A
  • Penetrate granulosa cells

- Bind and penetrate zona pellucida

94
Q

What is a zygote? How do you know a zygote is produced?

A
  • Fertilized ovum that is genetically complete

- Possesses a male and female pronucleus

95
Q

What occurs once the sperm binds to the zona pellucida? What is the effect?

A
  • Releases acrosomal contents, such as proteases

- Permits its entry into the perivitelline space, then the egg

96
Q

What occurs to activate the egg once the sperm has entered?

A

Calcium rapidly rises by stimulating phospholipase C

97
Q

What prevents polyspermy from occurring?

A

Phospholipase C release of calcium causes the hardening of the zona pellucida to prevent other sperm from entering the egg

98
Q

What’s the optimal time for fertilization?

A

Within 24 hours of ovulation

99
Q

Why does the risk of aneuploidy increase with maternal age?

A

As eggs get older, they are more prone to errors during meiosis, which may lead to aneuploidy

100
Q

What percentage of embryos miscarry after implantation?

A

31%

101
Q

What percentage of embryos miscarry after implantation in IVF?

A
  • 70%

- Bypasses the normal process, forcing ovulation

102
Q

How long does it take for the zygote to travel to the uterus after fertilization? What is its transport aided by?

A
  • 3 to 5 days

- Aided by cilia, which beat towards the uterus

103
Q

What hormonal effect promotes the entry of the egg into the uterus?

A
  • Rapidly increasing progesterone from the corpus luteum binds receptors on the smooth muscle cells of the fallopian tubes
  • Causes a relaxing effect, promoting entry of the egg into the uterus
104
Q

What are the effects of estrogen and progesterone on smooth muscles of the uterus?

A
  • Estrogen tones the uterus (contraction)

- Progesterone relaxes the uterus

105
Q

What is the zygote called on entry to the uterus?

A

Blastocyst

106
Q

What is the morula? How long does it take to develop?

A
  • Solid mass of cells formed from the zygote

- Takes approximately 3 days

107
Q

Where does the blastocyst undergo implantation? What occurs at implantation?

A
  • Into the uterine lining

- Spotting may occur at implantation

108
Q

When may hCG be detected?

A
  • Day 20-22

- Approximately 5-7 days after fertilization until implantation in the uterine lining

109
Q

What is the link between the integrin AlphavBeta3, implantation, and miscarriages?

A
  • Progesterone is required for the upregulation of adhesion proteins, such as integrins
  • The presence of AlphavBeta3 is associated with proper implantation
110
Q

What are the functions of the placenta?

A
  • Anchors fetus to uterus
  • Provides “bridge” for exchange of nutrients and waste products between mother and baby
  • Also serves as a excretory, respiratory, and endocrine organ
111
Q

What separates the maternal and fetal blood supply?

A

Placental tissue

112
Q

What is the important endocrine function of the placenta?

A
  • Secretes large amounts of hCG

- Stimulates the CL to continue its secretion of estrogen and progesterone

113
Q

What is the function of the yolk sac?

A
  • Important in the beginning of pregnancy

- Provides nutrients

114
Q

What is the amnionic fluid contained within? What is it?

A
  • Contained within the amnion (inside) and chorion (outside)

- Water breaks when the amnionic fluid escapes

115
Q

What makes a C-section required?

A

Bad placement of the placenta, which is frequent in older women

116
Q

Which fetal epithelium is bathed in maternal blood? Why?

A
  • Fetal chorionic epithelium

- Because chorionic villi have eroded through maternal endothelium

117
Q

How long is the gestation period? How is it subdivided?

A
  • 39 weeks

- Divided into three 3-month segments called trimesters

118
Q

What is the embryonic phase of gestation?

A

Fertilization until week 8

119
Q

What is the fetal phase?

A

Weeks 8 to 39

120
Q

What are the functions of hCG?

A
  • Maintains estrogen and progesterone secretion by the CL
  • Prevents menstruation
  • Promotes maintenance of the uterine lining
121
Q

What occurs after 4 months when hCG levels drop?

A
  • The placenta takes over secreting estrogen and progesterone as hCG levels drop
  • The CL subsequently ceases secreting these hormones
122
Q

What is responsible for mood changes and nausea during pregnancy?

A

High levels of progesterone

123
Q

What occurs to progesterone during labour?

A
  • Progesterone blocks uterine contractility

- Progesterone drops before labour

124
Q

Which hormones increase during labour to increase the intensity of uterine contractions?

A
  • Oxytocin
  • Cortisol (fetal and maternal)
  • Estrogens and PGF
125
Q

Does prolactin increase or decrease during labour?

A

Increases to allow the production of milk

126
Q

What is the main factor to induce labour? What may induce early labour?

A
  • The rise of fetal cortisol is the MAIN factor to induce pregnancy
  • Stressing the baby may induce early labour
127
Q

Which hormone is given as a synthetic hormone to induce labour?

A

Oxytocin

128
Q

What is the function of relaxin during labour?

A
  • Allows for hips to widen, and ligaments to loosen

- But, also makes you more susceptible to injury

129
Q

What is parturition?

A
  • Birth

- Transition between prenatal and postanatal periods of life

130
Q

What is stage one of parturition?

A

Period from onset of uterine contractions until cervical dilation is complete

131
Q

What is stage two of parturition?

A

Period from maximal cervical dilation until the baby exits through the vagina

132
Q

What is stage three of parturition?

A

Process of expulsion of the placenta through the vagina

133
Q

What positive feedback occurs from the baby dropping lower into the uterus during labour?

A

Cervical stretch

134
Q

What positive feedback does the cervical stretch during labour induce?

A
  • Uterine contractions
  • Oxytocin from posterior pituitary
  • Prostaglandins from uterine wall

3) Mammalian Physiology (24 decks)

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