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3) Mammalian Physiology > Lab 2: Blood and the Immune System > Flashcards

Lab 2: Blood and the Immune System Flashcards

1
Q

What is blood? What is the fluid matrix and what is suspended?

A
  • Fluid matrix: plasma

- Formed elements suspended: blood cells

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2
Q

What is the composition of plasma?

A
  • 90% water
  • Nutrients
  • Gases
  • Hormones
  • Metabolites
  • Proteins
  • Minerals
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3
Q

What are erythrocytes involved in?

A

Gas transport

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4
Q

What are leukocytes involved in?

A

Immunity

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5
Q

What are thrombocytes (or platelets) involved in?

A

Hemostasis or coagulation

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6
Q

What is the sedimentation rate? Is it a specific or non-specific test?

A
  • The rate at which erythrocytes sink to the bottom of a test tube
  • Non-specific test
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7
Q

What are the units of the sedimentation rate?

A

mm/hr

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8
Q

What affects the sedimentation rate?

A
  • Varies widely between species
  • Affected by agglutination of red blood cells and plasma proteins
  • Affected by the presence of disease
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9
Q

What are the effects of the presence of disease in terms of the sedimentation rate?

A

Increased sedimentation rate

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10
Q

Which diseases cause an increase in the sedimentation rate?

A
  • Acute general infections
  • Malignancy
  • Arthritis
  • Anemia
  • Pregnancy* (not a disease)
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11
Q

What is the human erythrocyte sedimentation rate for males?

A

0 to 15 mm/hr

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12
Q

What is the human erythrocyte sedimentation rate for females?

A

0 to 20 mm/hr

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13
Q

The concentration of red blood cells in a blood sample can be used as a diagnostic test to determine what?

A

If an animal is dehydrated or anemic

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14
Q

Describe the indirect method of determining RBC concentration?

A
  1. Centrifuge a blood sample to separate the cells and plasma.
  2. Determine the packed cell volume as a percentage to the total volume.
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15
Q

What is the hematocrit?

A

The volume percentage (vol%) of red blood cells in blood

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16
Q

What is the hematocrit % for men? For women?

A
  • Men: 45%

- Women: 40%

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17
Q

What are cell membranes permeable to? What are they impermeable to?

A
  • Permeable to water

- Relatively impermeable to ions

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18
Q

What is a hypotonic solution? What happens to a cell in such a solution?

A
  • Solutions which are lower in solute concentration than the cytoplasm
  • Water will travel INTO the cell (large)
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19
Q

What is a hypertonic solution? What happens to a cell in such a solution?

A
  • Solutions which are more concentrated than the cytoplasm

- Water will travel out of the cell (shrivelled)

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20
Q

What happens when a small blood vessel is damaged in some way and blood escapes?

A

The fluid state of the blood quickly changes to a gel-like clot

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21
Q

Describe the clotting mechanism.

A
  1. Reactions convert the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen to the insoluble protein fibrin.
  2. Strands of fibrin form a dense network in which RBCs become trapped
  3. When the damaged tissue is repaired, the clot is broken down by the enzyme plasmin.
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22
Q

What happens if you add a substance that binds calcium to blood?

A

Coagulation is prevented is calcium ions are a required element in the clotting mechanism

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23
Q

Give an example of an anti-coagulant. How does it function?

A
  • EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid)

- EDTA binds to calcium, which prevents it from acting in the clotting mechanism

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24
Q

What are the primary functions of neutrophils?

A
  • Phagocytosis (bacteria and cellular debris)

- Very important in inflammation

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25
Q

What are the primary functions of eosinophils?

A
  • Help break down blood clots

- Kill parasites

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26
Q

What are the primary functions of basophils?

A
  • Synthesize and store histamine (released during inflammation) and heparin (anticoagulant)
  • Functions remain unclear
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27
Q

What is heparin?

A

An anticoagulant

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28
Q

What are the primary functions of monocytes?

A
  • Phagocytosis

- Typically as macrophages in tissues of the liver, spleen, lungs, and lymph nodes

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29
Q

What are the primary functions of lymphocytes?

A

Immune response (including production of antibodies)

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30
Q

Where are leukocytes produced?

A

Bone marrow and lymph tissue

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31
Q

What can changes in the total number or relative proportions of the five types of leukocytes reflect?

A

Disease conditions or physiological changes in the individual

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32
Q

How is the differential white blood cell done?

A
  • On a stained blood smear
  • Counting 100 cells and classifying them according to type
  • Results are recorded as a percentage of the total white cell population
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33
Q

What are the white blood cell percentages of each leukocyte component?

A
  • Neutrophils (62%)
  • Lymphocytes (30%)
  • Monocytes (5%)
  • Eosinophils (2%)
  • Basophils (0.4%)
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34
Q

Blood is formed of __% plasma and __% formed elements.

A

55, 45

35
Q

What proteins are found in blood plasma?

A
  • Albumins
  • Globulins
  • Fibrinogens
  • Other clotting factors
36
Q

Why does a high erythrocyte sedimentation rate indicate that you have inflammation?

A

Blood group antigens cover red cells, which cause them to stick to each other and travel down the tube more quickly

37
Q

Why is the erythrocyte sedimentation rate increased during pregnancy?

A
  • Because blood volume increases to about 50% during pregnancy
  • This increase does NOT include the blood in the embryo (separate circulation)
38
Q

Why is there an increase in blood volume during pregnancy? What is the physiological function?

A
  • To meet the demands of the growing uterus

- Acts as a safeguard when blood is lost during labor and delivery

39
Q

Which components of blood increase during pregnancy?

A
  • Red blood cells

- Plasma (but plasma increases more)

40
Q

Why do red blood cells increase during pregnancy? What can cause anemia?

A
  • To meet the body’s demand for iron

- The increase in plasma can cause anemia

41
Q

What does the term hematocrit mean?

A

To separate from blood

42
Q

What happens when you centrifuge a patient’s blood sample? What rises and what sinks?

A
  • White blood cells and platelets rise to the top (buffy coat)
  • Red blood cells sink to the bottom
43
Q

What are normal hematocrit values for newborns?

A

Up to 60%

44
Q

What are normal hematocrit values for male adults?

A

40 to 54%

45
Q

What are normal hematocrit values for female adults?

A

36 to 46%

46
Q

What happens to hematocrit values during pregnancy?

A
  • Decreased hematocrit

- Especially in the last trimester as plasma volume increases

47
Q

In general, how does the normal packed cell volume of animals compare to humans?

A

The percentage is lower in animals

48
Q

Describe the mechanism of coagulation (in detail) that is initiated by blood platelets.

A
  1. Platelets produce a substance that combines with Ca2+ in the blood to form thromboplastin
  2. Thromboplastin converts prothrombin to thrombin
  3. Thrombin (a proteolytic enzyme) converts fibrinogen into fibrin
  4. Fibrin causes the blood plasma to gel
  5. Blood cells and plasma are meshed in the network of fibrils and form a clot
49
Q

What is a blood clot made of?

A
  • Blood platelets

- Proteins from the blood plasma (coagulation factors produced by the liver)

50
Q

What are coagulation factors produced by?

A

The liver

51
Q

What are the risks of a low number of platelets? In what scenario would you have a low number?

A
  • Can make a person vulnerable to bleeding
  • Autoimmune diseases
  • Genetic disorders (ex: haemophilia)
  • Chemotherapy
  • Leukemia
  • Viral infections
52
Q

Why do individuals with autoimmune diseases have low platelet counts?

A

Patients produce an antibody to their own platelets

53
Q

What are the risks of a high number of platelets? What is a high count called?

A
  • Make a person more vulnerable to blood clots

- Thrombocytosis

54
Q

What condition may cause an overproduction of platelets?

A

Essential thrombocythemia

55
Q

What are the complications of thrombocytosis?

A

Stroke, heart attack and formation of blood clots in the arms and legs

56
Q

How long do platelets live? Where are they produced?

A
  • Short life (under 7 days)

- Produced in the bone marrow

57
Q

What are normal platelet count ranges in humans?

A

150 000 to 450 000 platelets per microliter of blood

58
Q

What are granulocytes? What are their components? Where are they produced?

A
  • WBC with prominent granules in their cytoplasm
  • Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
  • Produced from the bone marrow
59
Q

What are agranulocytes? What are their components? Where are they produced? Where are they found?

A
  • WBC without granules
  • Lymphocytes and monocytes
  • Originate from the bone marrow
  • Mainly found in the lymph nodes and spleen
60
Q

What is the structure of a RBC? What are its functions?

A
  • Enucleated, consist of hemoglobin containing iron
  • Allows the cell to carry oxygen to the body
  • Carry away carbon dioxide from the lungs
61
Q

What is the structure of platelets? What is its function?

A
  • Tiny cells formed in the bone marrow

- Necessary for blood clotting

62
Q

What is histamine produced by? What is the consequence?

A
  • Mast cells and basophils
  • Increases the permeability of the capillaries to WBCs to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues (inflammatory response)
63
Q

What is heparin produced by? What is its function?

A
  • Basophils and mast cells
  • Anticoagulant which prevents the formation of clots
  • Allows the body’s natural clot lysis mechanisms to work normally to break down clots
64
Q

Describe the immune response the first time an allergy prone person runs across an allergen.

A
  1. Makes a large amount of IgE antibody
  2. IgE antibodies attack themselves to mast cells
  3. The next time they are exposed, these IgE primed mast cells release granules and histamine into the environment
  4. These chemicals cause the symptoms of an allergy
65
Q

How would dehydration affect an animal’s hematocrit reading?

A
  • Dehydration results in less plasma (due to water depletion)
  • Increases the hematocrit (total volume decreases)
66
Q

How would anemia affect an animal’s hematocrit reading?

A
  • There is less hemoglobin, which is carried by RBCs

- Decreases the hematocrit (RBC count decreases)

67
Q

What effect does a 1.6% saline solution have on blood cell size and shape?

A
  • The solution was hypertonic

- Resulted in crenation: shrivelled cells

68
Q

What effect does a 0.43% saline solution have on blood cell size and shape?

A
  • The solution was hypotonic

- Resulted in hemolysis: round, big cells

69
Q

What is hemolysis?

A

In a hypotonic solution, cells get gorged with water and eventually burst

70
Q

What is the physiological saline concentration?

A

0.9%

71
Q

How does the PVC of diluted blood with a hypertonic solution compare to whole blood?

A
  • Reduction in PVC in diluted blood
  • Hypertonic solution: crenation (water lost to environment)
  • Increases the total volume (RBC concentration = constant) = lower PVC
72
Q

Why do you need to multiply diluted blood hematocrit when calculating the PVC?

A

Since it was diluted 1:1

73
Q

How does 0oC affect clotting time?

A
  • Coagulation is slowed down because enzymatic activity is slowed down
  • The blood will eventually clot
74
Q

What is the optimal blood clotting temperature?

A

Physiological temperature = optimal enzymatic activity

75
Q

Does surface material contacting blood affect clotting time? Explain.

A
  • Yes, it affects the time as glass is a better heat conductor than plastic
  • Also, glass mimics collagen fibers calling on platelets to coagulate blood, which makes clotting faster as well
76
Q

What is heparin and what effect did it have on clotting time?

A
  • Heparin is an anti-coagulant that reverses the chelation process of blood clots
  • Thus, blood containing heparin did not clot
77
Q

Does blood plasma have all required elements to clot? Explain.

A
  • Yes, since it contains the clotting factors

- However, plasma does not contain platelets, which explains why whole blood clots faster

78
Q

Do isolated RBCs have all the required elements to clot? Explain.

A
  • No, since clotting factors nor platelets are present in RBCs
  • RBCs do not clot at all
79
Q

How are plasma components different than those in serum?

A
  • Serum does not contain clotting factors (e.g. fibrinogen)

- Serum does not act as a coagulant, while plasma does

80
Q

What is the buffy coat composed of?

A
  • White blood cells

- Platelets

81
Q

Differentiate a purple top and red top test tube.

A
  • Purple top: anticoagulant

- Red top: does not contain an anticoagulant

82
Q

What are the components of a purple top test tube?

A
  • Plasma
  • Buffy coat
  • RBCs
83
Q

What are the components of a red top test tube?

A
  • Serum (no clotting factors)
  • Buffy coat
  • RBCs (coagulated, with clotting factors)

3) Mammalian Physiology (24 decks)

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