Semester exam review Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology
The study of how the body and its parts work or function.
Gross anatomy
The study of large, easily observable structures.
Microscopic anatomy
Study of body structures that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Integumentary system
forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of sensory receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands
Skeletal system
protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals
Muscular system
allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat
Nervous system
fast–acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
Endocrine system
glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells
Cardiovascular system
blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood
Lymphatic system
picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity
Respiratory system
keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs in the lungs
Digestive system
breaks food into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
Urinary system
eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood
Reproductive system
production of offspring; testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in the delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract; ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus; mammary glands of the female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn
Maintaining boundaries
the organism’s “insides” remain distinct from its “outsides;” cells are surrounded by cell membrane that separates its contents from the outside interstitial fluid and allows entry of needed substances; prevents entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances
Movement
includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system (skeletal system, movement when blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through internal organs)
Responsiveness (or irritability)
the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then react to them
Digestion
process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can then be absorbed into the blood
Metabolism
a broad term that refers to all chemical reactions that occur within the body and all of its cells
Excretion
the process of removing excreta, or wastes from the body (the digestive system removes indigestible food residues in feces, the urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in urine, skin disposes of waste products in sweat
Reproduction
the production of offspring can occur on the cellular or organismal level
Growth
can be an increase in cell size or an increase in body size
5 survival needs
- Nutrients
- Oxygen
- Water
- Appropriate temperature
- Atmospheric pressure
Homeostasis
Describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world is continuously changing.
Homeostatic imbalance
A disturbance that can be the cause of a disease; as we age, our body organs become less efficient and our internal conditions become less and less stable; this puts us at an increased risk for illness and produce the changes we associate with aging
How does your body maintain homeostasis with a receptor, control center, and effectors?
Stimulus (a change) that is recognized by a receptor (a type of sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the environment); the receptor sends the information (input) to the control center along the afferent pathway, and the control center determines the level (set point) at which the variable is to be maintained; the effector provides the means for the control center’s response (output) to the stimulus; information flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent pathway (efferent exits the control center); results of the response then feedback to influence the stimulus either by positive or negative feedback
Negative feedback mechanisms
Most are negative; the net effect of the response to the stimulus is to either shut off the original stimulus or reduce its intensity
Positive feedback mechanisms
Rare; tend to increase the original disturbance (stimulus) and to push the variable farther from its original value
Sagittal section
cut along the lengthwise, or longitudinal, a plane of the body, dividing the body into right and left parts
Midsagittal (or median) section
if the cut is down the median plane of the body and the right and left parts are equal in size
Frontal section
a cut along the lengthwise plane that divides the body (or an organ) into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse section
a cut along the horizontal plane, dividing the body or organ into superior and inferior parts (also called a cross-section)
Dorsal body cavity
has 2 subdivisions that are continuous with each other: the cranial cavity (the space inside the bony skull) and the spinal cavity (extends from the cranial cavity to the end of the spinal cord)
Ventral body cavity
is much larger than the dorsal cavity; contains all the structures within the chest and abdomen (the visceral organs); subdivided into the thoracic cavity (separated by the diaphragm; lungs, and heart, protected by the rib cage); mediastinum separates the lungs into the right and left cavities in the thoracic cavity; inferior to the diaphragm is the abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal – stomach, liver, intestines; pelvic cavity – reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum)
Cell
Structural units of all living things
Tissue
Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function
4 major types of tissue
Epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle
Where in your body do you find epithelial tissue?
Forms lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body; Covers all free body surfaces, both inside and out
Functions of epithelial tissue
Protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion
5 characteristics of epithelium
- Fit close together to form continuous sheets
- Membranes always have one free (unattached) surface or edge (apical surface); the apical surface is exposed to the body’s exterior or the cavity of an internal organ
- the anchored (basal) surfaces rest on a basement membrane (a structureless material secreted by both epithelial cells and the connective tissue cells deep
- Have NO blood supply of their own (are avascular) and depend on diffusion from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue from food and oxygen
- If well nourished, epithelial cells regenerate themselves easily
Simple epithelia
one layer
Stratified epithelia
more than one layer
Squamous
flattened like fish scales
Cuboidal
cube-shaped
Columnar
shaped like columns
Simple squamous epithelium
A single layer of thin squamous cells resting on a basement membrane; forms membranes where filtration or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion occurs. In the air sacs of the lungs (alveoli), where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged, form the walls of capillaries, where nutrients and gases pass between the blood in the veins and the interstitial fluid, also include serous membranes (serosae) (slick membranes that line the ventral body cavity and cover the organs in that cavity.
Simple cuboidal epithelium
One layer of cuboidal cells rests on a basement membrane. Common in glands and their associated small tubes called ducts, also forms the walls of the kidney tubules and covers the surface of ovaries.
Simple columnar epithelium
Is made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit closely together; goblet cells which produce lubricating mucus, are often seen here. Lines the entire length of the digestive tract from the stomach to the anus
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Rest on a basement membrane, but some cells are shorter than others so their nuclei appear at different heights above the basement membrane, absorption, and secretion. Lines most of the respiratory tract.
Stratified squamous epithelium
In the most common stratified epithelium; cells at the free edge are squamous, whereas the cells close to the basement membrane are cuboidal or columnar. Found in sites that receive a good deal of abuse or friction, such as the surface of the skin, the mouth, and the esophagus
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Typically just have 2 cell layers with at least the surface cells being cuboidal; fairly rare. Largest ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands.
Stratified columnar epithelium
Are columnar, but the basal cells vary in shape and size; fairly rare. Small amounts in the male urethra and some glands.
Transitional epithelium
Highly modified, stratified squamous epithelium forms the lining of only a few organs that are able to stretch considerably. Lining the urinary bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra.
Glandular epithelium
Glandular cells obtain needed materials from the blood and use them to make their products, which they discharge by exocytosis. Endocrine glands: thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary; exocrine glands: sweat and oil glands, liver, pancreas.
Endocrine gland
Lose their ducts, thus they are often called ductless glands, their secretions (all hormones) diffuse directly into the blood vessels that weave through the glands (examples: thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary)
Exocrine gland
Retain their ducts and their secretions exit through the ducts to the epithelial surface (examples: exocrine: sweat and oil glands, liver, pancreas)
Connective tissue
Connects body parts, found everywhere in the body
Functions of connective tissue
Protecting, supporting, binding together other body tissue
Connective tissue: vascular?
Most connective tissues are well vascularized, but there are exceptions; tendons and ligaments for example have a poor blood supply and cartilage is avascular
Extracellular matrix
Produced by connective tissue cells and then secreted to their exterior, has two main elements: a structureless ground substance and fibers.
Ground substance
Part of the extracellular matrix that is composed mainly of water plus some cell adhesion proteins and large polysaccharide molecules
3 types of fibers that make up connective tissue?
Collagen, elastic, reticular
Bone (osseous) tissue
Osteocytes sitting in lacunae (cavities). Lacunae are surrounded by layers of the hard matrix that contains calcium salts and large numbers of collagen fibers. Protect and support other body organs
Hyaline cartilage
Most widespread of all cartilage. A glassy blue-white appearance. Trachea (windpipe) and attaches the ribs to the sternum; covers bone ends at joints.
Elastic cartilage
Found in structures with elasticity; external ear
Fibrocartilage
Highly compressible. Forms the cushion-like disks between the vertebrae of the spinal column.
Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)
The main matrix element is collagen fibers. Fibroblasts: fiber-forming cells that manufacture the building blocks of the fibers; form strong, ropelike structures. Tendons & ligaments + lower layers of the skin (dermis).
4 types of loose connective tissue
Areolar, adipose, reticular, blood
Areolar tissue
Most widely distributed connective tissue in the body. Soft, pliable, and cobwebby, cushions and protects the body organs it wraps, universal packing tissue, and connective tissue glue because it helps to hold the internal organs together and in their proper positions. Loose and fluid nature; provides a reservoir of water and salts for the surrounding tissues, and essentially all body cells obtain their nutrients from and release their wastes into this “tissue fluid.” When a body region is inflamed, the local areolar tissue soaks up the excess fluid like a sponge, and the area swells and becomes puffy (edema), many types of phagocytes wander through these tissues, scavenging for bacteria, dead cells, and other debris, which they destroy.
Adipose tissue
Fat; a glistening droplet of oil occupies most of a fat cell’s volume and compresses the nucleus, displacing it to one side. Forms the subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin, where it insulates the body and protects it from bumps and extremes of both heat and cold; protects some organs individually (kidneys, eyeball, hips, breasts, belly).
Reticular connective tissue
A delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers associated with reticular cells, which resemble fibroblasts. Forms the stroma or internal framework of an organ; can support many free blood cells in lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow
Blood (vascular) tissue
Considered a connective tissue because it consists of blood cells surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix called blood plasma. Is the transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, wastes, respiratory gasses, white blood cells, and many other substances
Muscle tissue
Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. They are highly specialized in contracting, or shortening, which generates the force required to produce movement.
Skeletal muscle
Packaged by connective tissue sheaths into organs called skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton, voluntarily, and form the flesh of the body, when contracted, they pull the bones or skin, multinucleate, long, cylindrical, striations, called muscle fibers.
Cardiac muscle
Found only in the heart wall, it acts as a pump to propel blood through blood vessels, has striations, a single nucleus, short branching cells that fit tightly together at intercalated discs (contain gap junctions that allow ions to pass freely from cell to cell), involuntary control.
Smooth muscle
No striations are visible, single nuclei and are tapered at both ends, found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels.
Nervous tissue
The cytoplasm is drawn out in long processes (extensions), as much as 3 ft or more in the leg, which allows a single neuron to conduct an impulse over long distances in the body. Contain cells called neurons, neurons receive and conduct electrochemical impulses from one part of the body to another
Body membranes
Cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form protective (and often lubricating) sheets around organs (2 groups - (1) epithelial membranes include cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes, and (2) connective tissue membranes, represented by synovial membranes.
Epithelial membranes
– called covering and lining membranes, including cutaneous (skin) mucous membranes, and the serous membranes
– always combined with an underlying layer of connective tissue
– because they are combined with connective tissue (always) they are actually simple organs
Connective tissue membranes
your skin; superficial epidermis composed of the keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium; the underlying dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue
Cutaneous membrane (skin)
your skin; superficial epidermis composed of the keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium; the underlying dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue
Mucous membranes
composed of epithelium resting on loose connective tissue membrane called lamina propria; lines all body cavities that open to the exterior, such as those of the hollow organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts; in all cases they are “wet” membranes that are almost continuously bathed in secretions or in the case of the urinary mucosae, urine; adapted for absorption and secretion
Serous membranes
They are composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue. Line body cavities close to the exterior (except the dorsal body cavity and joint cavities). Occur in pairs; the parietal layer lines a specific portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity; folds on itself to form the visceral layer, which covers the outside of the organs in that cavity (remember balloon and fist example). Peritoneum: serosa lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs. Pleura: serosa surrounding the lungs. Pericardia: serosa surrounding the heart.
Synovial membranes
Composed of soft areolar connective tissue and contain no epithelial cells. Line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints. Provide a smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid, line small sacs of connective tissue called bursae and tubelike tendon sheaths; both cushion organs moving against each other during muscle activity.
Four skin derivatives (appendages)
Sweat glands
Hair
Nails
Oil glands
Epidermis
made up of stratified squamous epithelium that is capable of keratinizing, or becoming hard and tough; is avascular; most cells are keratinocytes (keratin cells - the fibrous protein that makes the epidermis a tough protective layer) composed of 5 layers (or strata):
Stratum corneum (top layer)
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale (bottom layer)
Dermis
Your “hide;” is a strong stretchy envelope that holds the body together
Made of dense fibrous connective tissue
2 layers: papillary layer and reticular areas
Varies in thickness
Both collagen (responsible for the toughness) and elastic fibers (give the skin its elasticity) are found throughout the dermis
Vascular and plays a role in maintaining body temperature homeostasis
Hypodermis
deep to the dermis, is AKA “subcutaneous tissue” and adipose tissue; not considered part of the skin, but it does anchor the skin to underlying organs; serves as a shock absorber, and insulated the deeper tissues from extreme temperature changes outside the body; responsible for the curves that are more a part of a woman’s anatomy than a man’s
Stratum corneum
The outermost layer, about 15 to 30 cell layers thick
Nuclei no longer exist in these cells
Completely composed of dead cells – this is the farthest layer from the dermal blood supply
Very flat, compacted cells – gives skin its protective property
In between the cells, the spaces have been filled with lipids
Closest to the surface, cells appear loosely dense, due to their constant shedding
These cells have been keratinized
Layers below release a tough protein called keratin, that becomes deposited into these cells
Keratin is responsible for hardening and flattening the cells
Stratum lucidum
not present in all layers of skin (only palms of hands and soles of feet in “thick” skin
2nd layer from the skin surface, composed of several layers of flattened, dead cells
Nuclei degenerate (broken down); only a few nuclei, if any, can be seen under the microscope
The thin layer of the epidermis,
Extremely difficult to identify in thin skin, almost appears translucent
This transLUCent property gave rise to its name
A precursor to keratin can be found in these cells
Stratum granulosum
3rd layer from the skin surface
A thin layer of the epidermis
A few layers deep in thick skin, one layer in thin skin
Cells in this layer contain Lamellar granules
These granules release lipids and proteins into the space above, causing the cells above to start losing their nuclei and organelles
These granules also give rise to a hydrophobic envelope that serves as the skin’s barrier
The name for this layer came from these granules
Stratum spinosum
4th layer from the skin surface
Thickest layer of living keratinocyte cells
Cells are irregular, polygons in shape
Cells have tiny spine-like extensions protruding off the cell – giving this layer its name ‘spine’-osum
Cells here are switching over from mitotic roles (dividing) into keratin production
These are the cells that begin the formation of keratin precursors
Stratum basale (bottom layer)
closest to the dermis and is connected along a wavy borderline (dermal papillae); receive the most adequate nourishment via diffusion of nutrients from the dermis; constantly undergoing cell division; melanocytes are found here (produce melanin - a pigment that when exposed to sunlight produces more melanin and causes tanning)
What type of cell produces melanin?
melanocytes
Melanin
pigment that when exposed to sunlight produce more melanin and causes tanning
Where are melanocytes mostly found?
Stratum basale (bottom layer of the epidermis)
What color is melanin?
Ranges in color from yellow to brown to black
What factor contributes to the amount of melanin produced?
When the skin is exposed to sunlight
Papillary layer
the upper dermal region with uneven, peg-like projections from its superior surface called dermal papillae which indent the epidermis above; many dermal papillae contain capillary loops, which furnish nutrients to the epidermis; others house pain receptors (free nerve endings) and touch receptors (Messner’s corpuscles); form looped and whorled ridges (enhance the gripping ability of fingers and feet; lots of sweat pores and leave unique fingerprints
Reticular layer
is the deepest skin layer; contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called Pacinian corpuscles; phagocytes found here act to prevent bacteria that have managed to get through the epidermis from penetrating any deeper into the body
Three determinants of normal skin color
– the amount and kind of melanin
– the amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue; skin tends to take on a yellow-orange cast when the person eats a large amount of carotene-rich food
– the amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin (pigment in red blood cells) in the dermal blood vessels
Are cutaneous glands endocrine or exocrine glands?
Exocrine
Sebaceous glands
oil glands found all over the skin except on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, ducts usually empty into hair follicles, some directly to the skin above
Sweat glands
Coiled tubular structures vital for regulating human body temperature AKA - sudoriferous glands. Two types: eccrine and apocrine.
Eccrine sweat glands
are more numerous and are found all over the body; produce sweat, a clear secretion that is primarily water plus some salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic wastes, and lactic acid; open directly to the skin’s surface
Apocrine sweat glands
fatty acids and proteins, as well as all the substances present in eccrine secretion, milky or yellowish color; secretion is odorless but bacteria that live on the skin use its proteins and fats as a source of nutrients for growth; open into the hair follicles, such as on the scalp, armpits, and groin.
Sweat
function during puberty under androgens (male sex hormones); largely confined to axillary and genital areas of the body. Necessary to maintain homeostasis.
Hair
Minor protective function; produced by hair follicle (flexible epithelial structure), the part of the hair enclosed in the follicle is called the root, the part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is called the shaft, small bands of smooth muscle cells - raiser of hair connect each side of the hair follicle to the dermal tissue.
Nails
scalelike modification of the epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or claw of other animals; each nail has a free edge, a body, and a root
What are the 4 parts of the skeletal system?
Bones, joints, cartilages, and ligaments.
What are the 2 subdivisions of the skeletal system?
Axial and appendicular skeleton.
Function of bones
Support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell formation
How many bones are in the adult skeleton?
206
Compact bone tissue
dense and looks smooth and homogeneous
Spongy bone tissue
composed of small needlelike pieces of bone and lots of open space
What are the 4 categories of bone based on shape?
Long, short, irregular, and flat.
Long bones
typically longer than they are wide, have a shaft with heads at both ends, and mostly compact bone. all of the bones of the limbs, except the patella and the wrist and ankle bones, are long bones.
Short bones
generally cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy bone. bones of the wrists and ankles.
Irregular bones
do not fit into one of the previous categories. vertebrae and hip bones; most facial bones.
Flat bones
thin, flattened, and usually curved; have two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them. most bones of the skull, ribs and sternum.
Diaphysis
shaft; makes up most of the bone’s length and is composed of compact bone
Epiphysis
are the ends of the long bone, each epiphysis consists of a thin layer of compact bone enclosing an area filled with spongy bone
Periosteum
fibrous connective tissue membrane that covers the diaphysis
Sharpey’s fibers
aka perforating fibers; secure the periosteum to the underlying bone
Arteries
blood vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the tissues of the body
Articular cartilage
covers the end of the epiphysis, is glassy hyaline cartilage, provides a smooth, slippery surface that decreases friction at joint surfaces
Epiphyseal plate
flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone; cause the lengthwise growth of a long bone
Epiphyseal line
by the end of puberty, when hormones inhibit long bone growth, epiphyseal plates have been completely replaced by bone, leaving only the epiphyseal lines to mark their previous location
Medullary cavity
the cavity of the shaft; is primarily a storage area for adipose tissue (yellow bone marrow)
Osteon (Haversian system)
each complex of bone consists of central canal and matrix rings
Central (Haversian) canal
middle of an osteon (runs lengthwise through the bony matrix), carrying blood vessels and nerves to all areas of the bone
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
run into the compact bone at right angles to the shaft, allowing the communication pathway from the outside of the bone to its interior and central canals
Lacunae
tiny cavities that house osteocytes
Lamellae
concentric rings
Canaliculi
tiny canals that radiate outward from the central canals to all lacunae
In embryos, what is the skeleton primarily composed of?
Cartilage and fibrous membranes
During development, what is this cartilage replaced with?
Bone
Where does cartilage remain?
Epiphyseal plates
Bone growth
Epiphyseal plates allow for the lengthwise growth of long bones during childhood
New cartilage is continuously formed
Older cartilage becomes ossified
Cartilage is broken down
Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity
Bone replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts
Bone remodelling
Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
Two factors that cause bones to remodel
Blood calcium levels & Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
Appositional growth
Bones grow in width
Osteocytes
mature bone cells
Osteoblasts
bone-forming cells (b: build a bone)
Osteoclasts
bone-destroying cells (cl: clearing)
Which type of cells are involved in bone remodeling?
Osteoclasts—Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium in response to parathyroid hormone
Axial skeleton
Skull, Vertebral column, Bony thorax
What joins the bones in the skull together?
Sutures
Which bone is the only bone to be attached by a freely movable joint?
Mandible (jaw bone)
Paranasal sinuses
Hollow portions of bones surround the nasal cavity. Lighten the skull/ give resonance and amplification to voice
Hyoid bone
U-shaped, sits underneath the mandible, the only bone that doesn’t articulate with any other bone
How many vertebral bones are there in total?
24 singles
What separates each vertebral bone?
Intevertebral discs
How many cervical vertebrae are there and where are they in the vertebral column?
7 cervical vertebrae in the neck
How many thoracic vertebrae are there and where are they in the vertebral column?
12 thoracic vertebrae in the chest region
How many lumbar vertebrae are there and where are they in the vertebral column?
5 lumbar vertebrae in the lower back region
Sacrum
Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae, the middle bone.
Coccyx
Formed from the fusion of three to five vertebrae. “Tailbone,” or remnant of a tail that other vertebrates have.
Bony thorax
Forms a cage to protect major organs. Includes sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae.
True ribs
Pairs 1-7 that connect directly to the sternum.
False ribs
Pairs 8-12 that are not directly connected to the sternum
Floating ribs
Pairs 11-12 are only attached to vertebrae, not the sternum.
How many bones in the appendicular skeleton?
126
Appendicular skeleton
Limbs (appendages), pectoral + pelvic girdle
Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
Clavicle (collarbone) + Scapula (shoulder blade). These bones allow the upper limbs to have exceptionally free movement.
Bones of the upper limbs
Humerus: forms the brachial region, single bone
Ulna: Medial bone in the antebrachial region
Radius: lateral bone in the antebrachial region
Carpals: wrist bones
Metacarpals: palm of hand
Phalanges: fingers
Pelvic girlde
Formed by two coxal bones (ossa coxae)
Composed of three pairs of fused bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis.
The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
It protects several organs including reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and part of the large intestine.
Bones of the lower limbs
The thigh is one single bone: the femur, heaviest and strongest bone in the body.
The lower leg has two bones: tibia, superior shinbone that is larger and medially oriented and fibula, posterior that is thin and sticklike.
Joints
Articulations of bones. Hold bones together securely and also gives the rigid skeleton mobility, Every bone (except hyoid) forms a joint (articulation) with at least 1 other bone
Syntharosis
immovable joints (it’s a sin to move)
Amphiarthrosis
Slightly moveable joints
Diarthrosis
Freely moveable joints (you won’t die)
Plane joint
non-axial (doesn’t involve rotation around any axis) - articular surfaces are flat and only short slipping or gliding movements allowed (example: intercarpal joints)
Hinge joint
uniaxial (allows for motion around a single plane or a single axis); angular movement allowed in just 1 plane (door hinge); Examples: elbow, phalange joints)
Pivot joint
uniaxial; rotating bone can only turn around its long axis (think - basketball player pivoting); Example: proximal radial-ulnar joint, between atlas and dens
Condyloid joint
biaxial (movement takes place mainly about two axes at right angles to each other); egg shape of 1 fits into oval concavity in other, allow bone to travel side to side and back / forth but NOT on its long axis (example: knuckle joints)
Saddle joint
biaxial: each articular surface has both convex and concave areas like a saddle for a horse; example: joints in thumb
Ball and socket joint
multiaxial; spherical head of 1 bone fits into round socket in another, allow movement in all axes (rotation) and are the most freely movable synovial joints
Tendonitis
Inflammation of the thick fibrous cords that attach muscle to bone (tendons); causes pain and tenderness just outside the joint
Arthritis
inflammation or swelling of one or more joints
Osteoarthritis
The most common form of arthritis, aka degenerative joint disease or “wear and tear” arthritis
Occurs most frequently in the hands, hips, and knees
The cartilage within a joint begins to break down and the underlying bone begins to change
Can cause pain, stiffness, and swelling, reduced function in some cases and disability (if severe)
Rheumatoid arthritis
Chronic inflammatory disorder that can affect more than just joints
In some people, the condition can damage a wide variety of body systems, including skin, eyes, lungs, heart, and blood vessels
An autoimmune disorder, rheumatoid arthritis occurs when your immune system mistakenly attacks your own body’s tissues
Affects the lining of joints, causing a painful swelling that can eventually result in bone erosion and joint deformity
Gouty arthritis
A common form of inflammatory arthritis that is very painful
Usually affects one joint at a time (often the big toe joint)
There are times when the symptoms get worse, known as flares, and times when there are no symptoms, known as remission
Caused by hyperuricemia, where there is too much uric acid in the body
The body makes uric acid when it breaks down purines, which are found in your body and the foods you eat
With too much uric acid, curic acid crystals (monosodium urate) can buidl up in joints, fluids ,and tissues within the body
Increased chances for gout: men, obesity, congestive heart failure, hypertension, insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, poor kidney function, diuretics, drinking alcohol, eating foods and drinks high in fructose,
Can be managed by eating a healthy diet, getting physically active, losing weight, and protecting joints
Bursitis
Inflammation of the bursae - small, fluid filled sacs that cushion bones, tendons, and muscles near your joints
Feels achy, stiff, hurts more when you press it or move it, looks swollen and red
