Semaine 2 - Goldstein, 2010, pp. 73-91 Flashcards

Question

Où commence l’organisation de l’information dans le système visuel ? A. Dans le cortex B. Dans le tronc cérébral C. Dans la rétine D. Dans le LGN E. Aucune de ces réponses F. Toutes ces réponses

Answer 1

C « The LGN is a good place to begin discussing the idea of organization, because **although this organization begins in the retina**, it becomes more obvious in the LGN. We will see that the signals arriving at the LGN are sorted and organized based on the eye they came from, the receptors that generated them, and the type of environmental information that is represented in them. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 75)

Answer 2

E « We will see that **the signals arriving at the LGN are sorted and organized based on the eye they came from, the receptors that generated them, and the type of environmental information that is represented in them**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 75)

Answer 3

F « The LGN is a good place to begin discussing the idea of organization, **because although this organization begins in the retina, it becomes more obvious in the LGN**. We will see that the signals arriving at the LGN are sorted and organized based on the eye they came from, the receptors that generated them, and the type of environmental information that is represented in them. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 75)

Answer 4

C « Viewing one of these nuclei in cross section reveals **six layers** (Figure 4.3). Each layer receives signals from only one eye. Layers 2, 3, and 5 (red layers) receive signals from the ipsilateral eye, the eye on the same side of the body as the LGN. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 5

B « Layers 2, 3, and 5 (red layers) receive signals from the **ipsilateral eye**, the eye on the same side of the body as the LGN. Layers 1, 4, and 6 (blue layers) receive signals from the contralateral eye, the eye on the opposite side of the body from the LGN. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 6

A « Layers 1, 4, and 6 (blue layers) receive signals from the **contralateral eye**, the eye on the opposite side of the body from the LGN. Thus, each eye sends half of its neurons to the LGN that is located in the left hemisphere of the brain and half to the LGN that is located in the right hemisphere. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 7

C « Thus, **each eye sends half of its neurons to the LGN that is located in the left hemisphere of the brain** and half to the LGN that is located in the right hemisphere. Because the signals from each eye are sorted into different layers, the information from the left and right eyes is kept separated in the LGN. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 8

C « Because the signals from each eye are sorted into different layers, **the information from the left and right eyes is kept separated in the LGN**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 9

B « The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is a **bilateral structure**, which means there is one LGN in the left hemisphere and one in the right hemisphere. Viewing one of these nuclei in cross section reveals six layers (Figure 4.3). Each layer receives signals from only one eye. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 10

B. Une carte où chaque point sur le LGN correspond à un point sur la rétine. « Cette correspondance entre points sur le LGN et points sur la rétine crée une carte rétinotopique sur le LGN—**une carte dans laquelle chaque point sur le LGN correspond à un point sur la rétine**. Nous pouvons déterminer à quoi ressemble cette carte en enregistrant les neurones dans le LGN. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 11

B. En enregistrant les neurones dans le LGN. « Cette correspondance entre points sur le LGN et points sur la rétine crée une carte rétinotopique sur le LGN—une carte dans laquelle chaque point sur le LGN correspond à un point sur la rétine. **Nous pouvons déterminer à quoi ressemble cette carte en enregistrant les neurones dans le LGN**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 12

C. Sur les points A, B et C de la rétine. « Lorsque l’homme regarde la tasse, les points A, B et C sur la tasse sont **imagés sur les points A, B et C de la rétine**, et chaque endroit sur la rétine correspond à un endroit spécifique sur le noyau géniculé latéral (LGN). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 13

B. Chaque point sur le LGN correspond à un point sur la rétine. « Cette correspondance entre points sur le LGN et points sur la rétine **crée une carte rétinotopique sur le LGN**—une carte dans laquelle chaque point sur le LGN correspond à un point sur la rétine. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 14

C. Les points A, B et C sur la tasse sont imagés sur les points A, B et C de la rétine. « Lorsque l’homme regarde la tasse, **les points A, B et C sur la tasse sont imagés sur les points A, B et C de la rétine**, et chaque endroit sur la rétine correspond à un endroit spécifique sur le noyau géniculé latéral (LGN). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 76)

Answer 15

C. Chaque emplacement sur le LGN correspond à un emplacement sur la rétine. « The correspondence between locations on the retina and locations on the LGN means that **each location on the LGN corresponds to a location on the retina**, and neighboring locations on the LGN correspond to neighboring locations on the retina. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 16

A. Ils sont adjacents les uns aux autres sur la rétine. « Thus, the receptive fields of neurons that are near each other in the LGN, such as neurons A, B, and C, in layer 6 (Figure 4.5), **are adjacent to each other at A’, B’, and C’ on the retina**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 17

B. Dans toutes les couches du LGN. « Retinotopic maps occur not only in layer 6, but **in each of the other layers as well**, and the maps of each of the layers line up with one another. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 18

C. Tous les neurones rencontrés auront des champs récepteurs au même emplacement sur la rétine. « Thus, if we lower an electrode perpendicularly, as shown in Figure 4.5, **all of the neurons we encounter along the electrode track will have receptive fields at the same location on the retina**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 19

A. Un million. « This is an amazing feat of organization: **One million ganglion cell fibers travel to each LGN**, and on arriving there, each fiber goes to the correct LGN layer. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 20

B. Elles vont à la couche correcte du LGN. « One million ganglion cell fibers travel to each LGN, and on arriving there, **each fiber goes to the correct LGN layer** (remember that fibers from each eye go to different layers). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 21

D. 80% « As we saw in Figure 4.1, a large area of the cortex is involved in vision. In fact, **more than 80 percent of the cortex responds to visual stimuli** (Felleman & Van Essen, 1991). The idea that most of the cortex responds when the retina is stimulated is the result of research that began in the late 1950s. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 22

B. Fin des années 1950 « The idea that most of the cortex responds when the retina is stimulated is the result of research that **began in the late 1950s**. In the early 1950s, we knew little about visual cortical function; a 63-page chapter on the physiology of vision that appeared in the 1951 Handbook of Experimental Psychology devoted less than a page to the visual cortex (Bartley, 1951). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 23

A. Très limitée « In the early 1950s, **we knew little about visual cortical function**; a 63-page chapter on the physiology of vision that appeared in the 1951 Handbook of Experimental Psychology devoted less than a page to the visual cortex (Bartley, 1951). But by the end of that decade, David Hubel and Thorsten Wiesel (1959) had published a series of papers in which they described both receptive field properties and organization of neurons in the striate cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 24

C. Hubel & Wiesel « But by the end of that decade, David Hubel and Thorsten Wiesel (1959) had published a series of papers in which they described both receptive field properties and organization of neurons in the striate cortex. For this research and other research on the visual system, **Hubel and Wiesel received the Nobel prize in physiology and medicine in 1982**. We will see later in this chapter how other researchers pushed our knowledge of visual physiology to areas beyond the striate cortex, but first let’s consider Hubel and Wiesel’s research. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 25

A. Handbook of Experimental Psychology « In the early 1950s, we knew little about visual cortical function; a 63-page chapter on the physiology of vision that appeared in the **1951 Handbook of Experimental Psychology** devoted less than a page to the visual cortex (Bartley, 1951). But by the end of that decade, David Hubel and Thorsten Wiesel (1959) had published a series of papers in which they described both receptive field properties and organization of neurons in the striate cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 26

D. A et B « But by the end of that decade, David Hubel and Thorsten Wiesel (1959) had published a series of papers in which they described both **receptive field properties and organization of neurons in the striate cortex**. For this research and other research on the visual system, Hubel and Wiesel received the Nobel prize in physiology and medicine in 1982. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 77)

Answer 27

C. Une courbe qui montre la réponse d’un neurone à différentes orientations de barres. « The relationship between orientation and firing is indicated by a neuron’s orientation tuning curve, which is determined by **measuring the responses of a simple cortical cell to bars with different orientations**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 28

D. 25 impulsions nerveuses par seconde. « The tuning curve in Figure 4.6c shows that the cell responds with **25 nerve impulses per second to a vertically oriented bar**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 29

C. La réponse de la cellule diminue. « The cell’s response decreases as the bar is tilted away from the vertical, and begins stimulating inhibitory areas of the neuron’s receptive field. Notice that **a bar tilted 20 degrees from the vertical elicits only a small response**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 30

C. Barre verticale. « This particular simple cell **responds best to a bar with a vertical orientation**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 31

A. Oui. « This particular simple cell responds best to a bar with a vertical orientation, but **there are other simple cells that respond to other orientations**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 32

A. À toutes les orientations existantes. « There are neurons that **respond to all of the orientations that exist in the environment**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 33

Une courbe qui montre la réponse d’un neurone à différentes orientations de barres. « The relationship between orientation and firing is indicated by a neuron’s orientation tuning curve, which is determined by **measuring the responses of a simple cortical cell to bars with different orientations**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 34

D. 25 impulsions nerveuses par seconde. « The tuning curve in Figure 4.6c shows that the cell responds with **25 nerve impulses per second to a vertically oriented bar**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 35

C. La réponse de la cellule diminue. « The cell’s response decreases as the bar is tilted away from the vertical, and begins stimulating inhibitory areas of the neuron’s receptive field. Notice that **a bar tilted 20 degrees from the vertical elicits only a small response**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 36

C. Barre verticale. « This particular simple cell **responds best to a bar with a vertical orientation**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 37

A. Oui. « This particular simple cell responds best to a bar with a vertical orientation, but **there are other simple cells that respond to other orientations**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 38

B. Elles ne répondaient pas. « Although Hubel and Wiesel were able to use small spots of light to map the receptive fields of simple cortical cells like the one in Figure 4.6, they found that many of the cells they encountered in the cortex **refused to respond to small spots of light**. In his Nobel lecture, Hubel describes how he and Wiesel were becoming increasingly frustrated in their attempts to get these cortical neurons to fire, when something startling happened: As they inserted a glass slide containing a spot stimulus into their slide projector, a cortical neuron “went off like a machine gun” (Hubel, 1982). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 39

B. Les neurones répondaient aux bords en mouvement. « As they inserted a glass slide containing a spot stimulus into their slide projector, a cortical neuron “went off like a machine gun” (Hubel, 1982). The neuron, as it turned out, was responding not to the spot at the center of the slide that Hubel and Wiesel had planned to use as a stimulus, but to **the image of the slide’s edge moving downward** on the screen as the slide dropped into the projector. Upon realizing this, Hubel and Wiesel changed their stimuli from small spots to moving lines and were then able to find cells that responded to oriented moving bars. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 40

B. Ils ont utilisé des lignes en mouvement. « The neuron, as it turned out, was responding not to the spot at the center of the slide that Hubel and Wiesel had planned to use as a stimulus, but to the image of the slide’s edge moving downward on the screen as the slide dropped into the projector. Upon realizing this, Hubel and Wiesel **changed their stimuli from small spots to moving lines** and were then able to find cells that responded to oriented moving bars. As with simple cells, a particular neuron had a preferred orientation. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 41

C. Il répondait fortement. « In his Nobel lecture, Hubel describes how he and Wiesel were becoming increasingly frustrated in their attempts to get these cortical neurons to fire, when something startling happened: As they inserted a glass slide containing a spot stimulus into their slide projector, **a cortical neuron “went off like a machine gun”** (Hubel, 1982). The neuron, as it turned out, was responding not to the spot at the center of the slide that Hubel and Wiesel had planned to use as a stimulus, but to the image of the slide’s edge moving downward on the screen as the slide dropped into the projector. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 42

B. Les cellules complexes répondent à des barres de lumière en mouvement. « Complex cells, like simple cells, respond best to bars of a particular orientation. However, unlike simple cells, which respond to small spots of light or to stationary stimuli, **most complex cells respond only when a correctly oriented bar of light moves across the entire receptive field**. Further, many complex cells respond best to a particular direction of movement. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 43

B. Elles répondent à des barres de lumière en mouvement. « Complex cells, like simple cells, respond best to bars of a particular orientation. However, unlike simple cells, which respond to small spots of light or to stationary stimuli, **most complex cells respond only when a correctly oriented bar of light moves across the entire receptive field**. Further, many complex cells respond best to a particular direction of movement. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 44

D. Par l’aire qui, lorsqu’elle est stimulée, provoque une réponse dans le neurone. « Because these neurons don’t respond to stationary flashes of light, their receptive fields are not indicated by pluses and minuses, but by **indicating the area which, when stimulated, elicits a response in the neuron**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 45

B. Elles ne répondent pas. « Because these neurons don’t respond to stationary flashes of light, **their receptive fields are not indicated by pluses and minuses**, but by indicating the area which, when stimulated, elicits a response in the neuron. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 46

A. Une direction particulière. « Further, **many complex cells respond best to a particular direction of movement**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 78)

Answer 47

C. Cellules end-stoppées « Another type of cell, called **end-stopped cells**, fi re to mov[1]ing lines of a specifi c length or to moving corners or angles. Figure 4.8b shows a light corner stimulus that is being moved up and down across the retina. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 48

A. Un stimulus de coin lumineux « Figure 4.8b shows **a light corner stimulus** that is being moved up and down across the retina. The records to the right indi[1]cates that the neuron responds when the corner moves up[1]ward. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 49

C. La réponse du neurone s’arrête « The neuron’s response increases as the corner-shaped stimulus gets longer, but then **stops responding** when the corner becomes too long. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 50

A. Ils répondent uniquement aux lignes orientées « Hubel and Wiesel’s fi nding that **some neurons in the cortex respond only to oriented lines** was an extremely im[1]portant discovery because it indicates that neurons in the cortex do not simply respond to “light”; they respond to some patterns of light and not to others. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 51

A. Elle montre que les neurones répondent à des motifs spécifiques de lumière « Hubel and Wiesel’s discovery that neurons respond selectively to stationary and moving lines was an im[1]portant step toward determining how neurons respond to **more complex objects**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 52

B. Percevoir les objets dans l’environnement « This makes sense because the purpose of the visual system is to enable us to **perceive objects in the environment**, and many objects can be at least crudely represented by lines of various orienta[1]tions. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 53

En réponse à des caractéristiques spécifiques du stimulus.. « Because simple, complex, and end-stopped cells fi re in response to specifi c features of the stimulus, such as orien[1]tation or direction of movement, they are sometimes called **feature detectors**. Table 4.1, which summarizes the prop[1]erties of the fi ve types of neurons we have described so far, illustrates an important fact about neurons in the visual system: As we travel farther from the retina, neurons fi re to more complex stimuli. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 54

B. « Retinal ganglion cells respond best to **spots of light**, whereas cortical end-stopped cells respond best to bars of a certain length that are moving in a particu[1]lar direction. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 55

C. « Retinal ganglion cells respond best to spots of light, whereas **cortical end-stopped cells respond best to bars of a certain length that are moving in a particu[1]lar direction**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 56

B. « Table 4.1, which summarizes the prop[1]erties of the fi ve types of neurons we have described so far, illustrates an important fact about neurons in the visual system: As we travel farther from the retina, **neurons fire to more complex stimuli**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 57

A. « Retinal ganglion cells respond best to **spots of light**, whereas cortical end-stopped cells respond best to **bars of a certain length that are moving in a particu[1]lar direction**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 58

B. Ils deviennent moins sensibles. « The idea behind selective adaptation is that if the neurons fi re for long enough, they become fatigued, or adapt. This adaptation causes two physiological effects: (1) the neuron’s fi ring rate decreases, and (2) the neuron fi res less when that stimulus is immediately presented again. According to this idea, presenting a vertical line causes neurons that respond to vertical lines to respond, but as these presentations continue, these neurons eventually begin to fi re less to vertical lines. **Adaptation is selective because only the neurons that respond to verticals or near-verticals adapt**, and other neurons do not. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 59

B. Le taux de décharge du neurone diminue. « The idea behind selective adaptation is that if the neurons fi re for long enough, they become fatigued, or adapt. This adaptation causes two physiological effects: (1) the neuron’s fi ring rate decreases, and (2) **the neuron fi res less when that stimulus is immediately presented again**. According to this idea, presenting a vertical line causes neurons that respond to vertical lines to respond, but as these presentations continue, these neurons eventually begin to fi re less to vertical lines. Adaptation is selective because only the neurons that respond to verticals or near-verticals adapt, and other neurons do not. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 60

B. Parce que seuls les neurones qui répondent à des orientations spécifiques s’adaptent. « According to this idea, presenting a vertical line causes neurons that respond to vertical lines to respond, but as these presentations continue, these neurons eventually begin to fi re less to vertical lines. **Adaptation is selective because only the neurons that respond to verticals or near-verticals adapt**, and other neurons do not. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 61

B. Devenir moins sensible aux lignes verticales. « The basic assumption behind a psychophysical selective adaptation experiment is that if these adapted neurons have anything to do with perception, then **adaptation of neurons that respond to verticals should result in the perceptual effect of becoming selectively less sensitive to verticals**, but not to other orientations. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 62

B. Un stimulus de grille. « Many selective adaptation experiments have used a stimulus called **a grating stimulus** and a behavioral measure called the contrast threshold. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 63

B. Le seuil de contraste. « Many selective adaptation experiments have used a stimulus called a grating stimulus and **a behavioral measure called the contrast threshold**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 64

A. Des barres alternées « Grating stimuli are alternating bars. Figure 4.9a shows gratings with black and white bars. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 65

A. À gauche « Figure 4.9b shows gratings with a number of different contrasts. High-contrast gratings are on the left, and lower-contrast gratings are on the right. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 66

A. La différence d’intensité à laquelle les barres peuvent être à peine vues « A grating’s contrast threshold is the difference in intensity at which the bars can just barely be seen. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 67

B. Les barres deviennent moins visibles « The difference between the bars in the grating on the far right of Figure 4.9b is close to the contrast threshold, because further decreases in the difference between the light and dark bars would make it difficult to see the bars. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 79)

Answer 68

A. Les résultats d’une expérience d’adaptation sélective « Figure 4.11a shows the results of a selective adaptation experiment in which the adapting stimulus was a vertically oriented grating. **This graph indicates that adapting with the vertical grating caused a large increase in contrast threshold for the vertically oriented test grating**. That is, the contrast of a vertical grating had to be increased for the person to see the bars. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 69

B. Il augmente « Figure 4.11a shows the results of a selective adaptation experiment in which the adapting stimulus was a vertically oriented grating. This graph indicates that adapting with the vertical grating **caused a large increase in contrast threshold for the vertically oriented test grating**. That is, the contrast of a vertical grating had to be increased for the person to see the bars. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 70

C. Que l’adaptation affecte sélectivement certaines orientations « The important result of this experiment is that our psychophysical curve shows that **adaptation selectively affects only some orientations**, just as neurons selectively respond to only some orientations. In fact, comparing the psychophysically determined selective adaptation curve (4.11a) to the orientation tuning curve for a simple cortical neuron (4.11b) reveals that they are very similar. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 71

B. Elles sont très similaires « In fact, comparing the psychophysically determined selective adaptation curve (4.11a) to the orientation tuning curve for a simple cortical neuron (4.11b) **reveals that they are very similar**. The psychophysical curve is slightly wider because the adapting grating affects not only neurons that respond best to verticals, but also more weakly affects some neurons that respond to nearby orientations. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 72

B. Parce que la grille d’adaptation affecte également certains neurones qui répondent aux orientations proches « The psychophysical curve is slightly wider because **the adapting grating affects not only neurons that respond best to verticals, but also more weakly affects some neurons that respond to nearby orientations**. The near-match between the orientation selectivity of neurons and the perceptual effect of selective adaptation supports the idea that orientation detectors play a role in perception. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 73

A. Que les détecteurs d’orientation jouent un rôle dans la perception « The near-match between the orientation selectivity of neurons and the perceptual effect of selective adaptation **supports the idea that orientation detectors play a role in perception**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 74

B. Ils sont impliqués dans la perception « Further evidence that feature detectors are involved in perception is provided by selective rearing experiments. **The idea behind selective rearing is that if an animal is reared in an environment that contains only certain types of stimuli, then neurons that respond to these stimuli will become more prevalent**. This follows from a phenomenon called neural plasticity or experience-dependent plasticity. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 75

A. L’idée que les propriétés de réponse des neurones peuvent être façonnées par l’expérience perceptuelle « This follows from a phenomenon called neural plasticity or experience-dependent plasticity—the idea that **the response properties of neurons can be shaped by perceptual experience**. According to this idea, rearing an animal in an environment that contains only vertical lines should result in the animal’s visual system having neurons that respond predominantly to verticals. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 76

A. Il développe des neurones qui répondent principalement aux verticales « According to this idea, rearing an animal in an environment that contains only vertical lines should result in the animal’s visual system having **neurons that respond predominantly to verticals**. This result may seem to contradict the results of the selective adaptation experiment just described. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 77

A. Parce que l’exposition aux verticales diminue la réponse aux verticales « This result may seem to contradict the results of the selective adaptation experiment just described, in which **exposure to verticals decreases the response to verticals**. However, the selective rearing effect occurs over a longer timescale and is strongest in young animals. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 78

A. Parce que leur système visuel est encore en développement « However, the selective rearing effect occurs over a longer timescale and is strongest in young animals, **whose visual systems are still developing**. Thus, when a kitten is exposed only to verticals, some adaptation to vertical orientations may take place. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 79

A. Utilisez-le ou perdez-le « Les expériences de réaring sélectif montrent que les capacités non utilisées peuvent être perdues. **Ce principe est démontré par les expériences de Blakemore et Cooper** où les chatons exposés à une seule orientation de rayures ont perdu la capacité de percevoir d’autres orientations. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 80

C. Pour les empêcher de voir les rayures verticales comme horizontales « Les chatons portaient des cônes pour les empêcher de voir les rayures verticales comme horizontales. **Cela garantissait qu’ils ne voyaient qu’une seule orientation**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 81

D. Ils étaient curieux « Les chatons ne semblaient pas perturbés par la monotonie de leur environnement. **Ils passaient de longues périodes à inspecter les murs du tube**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 82

A. Absence de coins visibles « Il n’y avait pas de coins visibles dans l’environnement des chatons. **Les seules choses visibles étaient les rayures sur les côtés du tube**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 80)

Answer 83

B. Ils ignoraient une tige horizontale. « When the kittens’ behavior was tested after 5 months of selective rearing, they seemed blind to the orientations that they hadn’t seen in the tube. **For example, a kitten that was reared in an environment of vertical stripes would pay attention to a vertical rod but ignored a horizontal rod**. Following behavioral testing, Blakemore and Cooper recorded from cells in the visual cortex and determined the stimulus orientation that caused the largest response from each cell. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 81)

Answer 84

B. Ils la prêtaient attention. « When the kittens’ behavior was tested after 5 months of selective rearing, they seemed blind to the orientations that they hadn’t seen in the tube. **For example, a kitten that was reared in an environment of vertical stripes would pay attention to a vertical rod but ignored a horizontal rod**. Following behavioral testing, Blakemore and Cooper recorded from cells in the visual cortex and determined the stimulus orientation that caused the largest response from each cell. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 81)

Answer 85

A. Ils enregistraient les réponses des cellules dans le cortex visuel. « When the kittens’ behavior was tested after 5 months of selective rearing, they seemed blind to the orientations that they hadn’t seen in the tube. For example, a kitten that was reared in an environment of vertical stripes would pay attention to a vertical rod but ignored a horizontal rod. **Following behavioral testing, Blakemore and Cooper recorded from cells in the visual cortex and determined the stimulus orientation that caused the largest response from each cell**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 81)

Answer 86

C. Verticale « This cat, which was reared in a vertical environment, has many neurons that respond best to **vertical or near-vertical stimuli**, but none that respond to horizontal stimuli. The horizontally responding neurons were apparently lost because they hadn’t been used. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 87

B. Ils sont perdus « The horizontally responding neurons were **apparently lost because they hadn’t been used**. The opposite result occurred for the horizontally reared cats. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 88

B. La sélectivité d’orientation influence la réponse comportementale « The parallel between the orientation selectivity of neurons in the cat’s cortex and the cat’s **behavioral response to the same orientation** provides more evidence that feature detectors are involved in the perception of orientation. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 89

A. Leur rôle dans la perception de l’orientation « This connection between feature detectors and **perception was one of the major discoveries** of vision research in the 1960s and 1970s. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 90

B. Les champs récepteurs des neurones sont organisés. « Hubel and Wiesel found that the receptive field of each neuron was displaced slightly on the retina, as indicated by the squares in Figure 4.13b, but that receptive fields of neurons close to each other along the electrode track had receptive fields that were close to each other on the retina. **Thus, nearby points on the cortex receive signals from nearby locations in the retina**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 91

D. Par proximité. « Hubel and Wiesel found that the receptive field of each neuron was displaced slightly on the retina, as indicated by the squares in Figure 4.13b, but that receptive fields of neurons close to each other along the electrode track had receptive fields that were close to each other on the retina. **Thus, nearby points on the cortex receive signals from nearby locations in the retina**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 92

C. Électrode oblique. « Figure 4.13 shows the results of an experiment by Hubel and Wiesel (1965), when they recorded from a series of neurons along an **oblique electrode track** in the cat’s visual cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 93

B. Elle permet une réponse organisée. « Hubel and Wiesel found that the receptive field of each neuron was displaced slightly on the retina, as indicated by the squares in Figure 4.13b, but that receptive fields of neurons close to each other along the electrode track had receptive fields that were close to each other on the retina. **Thus, nearby points on the cortex receive signals from nearby locations in the retina**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 94

B « **Retinotopic mapping indicates that information about objects near each other in the environment is processed by neurons near each other in the cortex**. This makes sense in terms of efficiency of functioning. Adjacent areas in the environment can affect one another, as evidenced by the simultaneous contrast effect shown in Figure 3.39, so processing would be more efficient if areas that are adjacent in the environment were also adjacent in the visual system. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 95

B « Another example of physiology serving functionality is that the area representing the cone-rich fovea is much larger than one would expect from the fovea’s small size. **Even though the fovea accounts for only 0.01 percent of the retina’s area, signals from the fovea account for 8 to 10 percent of the retinotopic map on the cortex** (Van Essen & Anderson, 1995). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 96

A « Another example of physiology serving functionality is that the area representing the cone-rich fovea is much larger than one would expect from the fovea’s small size. **Even though the fovea accounts for only 0.01 percent of the retina’s area**, signals from the fovea account for 8 to 10 percent of the retinotopic map on the cortex (Van Essen & Anderson, 1995). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 97

D « Another example of physiology serving functionality is that the area representing the cone-rich fovea is much larger than one would expect from the fovea’s small size. Even though the fovea accounts for only 0.01 percent of the retina’s area, **signals from the fovea account for 8 to 10 percent of the retinotopic map on the cortex** (Van Essen & Anderson, 1995). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 98

A « The cortical magnifi cation factor in the human cortex has been determined using a technique called **brain imaging**, which makes it possible to create pictures of the brain’s activity (Figure 4.15). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 99

B « The cortical magnification factor in the human cortex has been determined using a technique called brain imaging, which **makes it possible to create pictures of the brain’s activity** (Figure 4.15). We will describe the procedure of brain imaging and how this procedure has been used to measure the cortical magnifi cation factor in humans. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 82)

Answer 100

C. Activer une plus grande zone du cortex pour les stimuli proches de la fovéa « Cette activation illustre le facteur de magnification parce que la stimulation de la petite zone près de la fovéa a activé une **plus grande zone sur le cortex** (rouge) que la stimulation de la plus grande zone dans la périphérie (bleu). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 83)

Answer 101

B. Le stimulus visuel vu par l’observateur « Figure 4.17a montre le **stimulus display vu par l’observateur**, qui était dans un scanner IRMf. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 83)

Answer 102

A. Les stimuli proches activent une plus grande zone du cortex « La stimulation de la petite zone près de la fovéa a activé une **plus grande zone sur le cortex** (rouge) que la stimulation de la plus grande zone dans la périphérie (bleu). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 83)

Answer 103

C. Pour fournir le traitement neural supplémentaire nécessaire pour des tâches nécessitant une haute acuité visuelle « L’espace cortical supplémentaire alloué aux lettres et aux mots où la personne regarde fournit le **traitement neural supplémentaire nécessaire** pour accomplir des tâches telles que la lecture qui nécessitent une haute acuité visuelle. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 83)

Answer 104

B. Elle montre la représentation spatiale des mots sur une page dans le cortex « La grande représentation de la fovéa dans le cortex est également illustrée dans la **Figure 4.18**, qui montre l’espace qui serait alloué aux mots sur une page. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 83)

Answer 105

C. Fournir le traitement neural supplémentaire nécessaire pour des tâches nécessitant une haute acuité visuelle « L’espace cortical supplémentaire alloué aux lettres et aux mots où la personne regarde fournit le **traitement neural supplémentaire nécessaire** pour accomplir des tâches telles que la lecture qui nécessitent une haute acuité visuelle. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 83)

Answer 106

C. La stimulation de la fovéa active une plus grande zone du cortex « Cette activation illustre le facteur de magnification parce que la **stimulation de la petite zone près de la fovéa a activé une plus grande zone sur le cortex** (rouge) que la stimulation de la plus grande zone dans la périphérie (bleu). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 83)

Answer 107

C. fMRI « Ils ont mesuré l’activation cérébrale avec la **fMRI** et l’acuité visuelle en utilisant une tâche psychophysique. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 108

A. Plus d’espace cortical est associé à une meilleure acuité « Certaines personnes avaient plus d’espace cortical alloué à leurs fovéas que d’autres personnes, et celles avec plus d’espace cortical avaient également une meilleure **acuité**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 109

F. Toutes ces réponses « Apparently, good acuity is associated **not only with sharp focusing of images on the retina**, **and the small amount of convergence of the cones**, ***but also with the relatively large amount of brain area devoted to the all-cone fovea***. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 110

C. L’acuité visuelle est influencée par l’espace cortical alloué à la fovéa « **Certaines personnes avaient plus d’espace cortical alloué à leurs fovéas que d’autres personnes**, et celles avec plus d’espace cortical avaient également une meilleure acuité. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 111

B. Insertion d’électrodes perpendiculaires à la surface du cortex. « Doing this has revealed that the cortex is organized into a number of different kinds of columns. **Location Columns Hubel and Wiesel (1965) recorded from neurons along a perpendicular electrode track** as shown in Figure 4.19a, which shows a side view of the cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 112

B. Ils sont situés au même endroit sur la rétine. « The receptive fields of neurons 1, 2, 3, and 4, indicated by the squares in Figure 4.19b, are all located at about the same place on the retina. **Hubel and Wiesel concluded from this result that the cortex is organized into location columns** that are perpendicular to the surface of the cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 113

B. Perpendiculairement à la surface du cortex. « Hubel and Wiesel concluded from this result that the cortex is organized into location columns that are **perpendicular to the surface of the cortex** so that all of the neurons within a location column have their receptive fields at the same location on the retina. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 114

A. Le cortex est organisé en colonnes de localisation. « Hubel and Wiesel concluded from this result that the **cortex is organized into location columns** that are perpendicular to the surface of the cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 115

A. Parce qu’ils répondent aux mêmes stimuli visuels. « The receptive fields of neurons 1, 2, 3, and 4, indicated by the squares in Figure 4.19b, are all located at about the same place on the retina. Hubel and Wiesel concluded from this result that the cortex is organized into **location columns that are perpendicular to the surface of the cortex so that all of the neurons within a location column have their receptive fields at the same location on the retina**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 116

C. Insertion d’électrodes perpendiculaires à la surface du cortex. « Doing this has revealed that the cortex is organized into a number of different kinds of columns. **Location Columns Hubel and Wiesel (1965) recorded from neurons along a perpendicular electrode track** as shown in Figure 4.19a, which shows a side view of the cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 117

B. Elles permettent une organisation structurée des neurones. « Hubel and Wiesel concluded from this result that the **cortex is organized into location columns** that are perpendicular to the surface of the cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 84)

Answer 118

C. Le cortex est organisé en colonnes d’orientation. « Thus, all cells encountered along the electrode track at A in Figure 4.20 fired the most to horizontal lines, whereas all those along electrode track B fired the most to lines oriented at about 45 degrees. Based on this result, Hubel and Wiesel concluded that **the cortex is organized into orientation columns**, with each column containing cells that respond best to a particular orientation. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 119

B. Les orientations préférées des neurones changent de manière ordonnée. « When they moved an electrode through the cortex obliquely, as was done for the LGN (Figure 4.5), so that the electrode cut across orientation columns, they found that the neurons’ **preferred orientations changed in an orderly fashion**, so a column of cells that respond best to 90 degrees is right next to the column of cells that respond best to 85 degrees. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 120

B. 1 millimètre. « Hubel and Wiesel also found that as they moved their electrode **1 millimeter across the cortex**, their electrode passed through orientation columns that represented the entire range of orientations. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 121

B. Lignes horizontales. « Thus, **all cells encountered along the electrode track at A** in Figure 4.20 fired the most to **horizontal lines**, whereas all those along electrode track B fired the most to lines oriented at about 45 degrees. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 122

C. Lignes à 45 degrés. « Thus, all cells encountered along the electrode track at A in Figure 4.20 fired the most to horizontal lines, whereas **all those along electrode track B fired the most to lines oriented at about 45 degrees**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 123

B. Les colonnes adjacentes montrent des orientations préférées légèrement différentes. « Hubel and Wiesel also showed that **adjacent columns have cells with slightly different preferred orientations**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 124

C. Déplacement d’une électrode à travers le cortex. « **Hubel and Wiesel concluded that the cortex is organized into orientation columns**, with each column containing cells that respond best to a particular orientation. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 125

D. 80 pour cent. « Neurons in the cortex are also organized with respect to the eye to which they respond best. **About 80 percent of the neurons in the cortex respond to stimulation of both the left and right eyes**. However, most neurons respond better to one eye than to the other. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 126

A. Dominance oculaire. « However, most neurons respond better to one eye than to the other. **This preferential response to one eye is called ocular dominance**, and neurons with the same ocular dominance are organized into ocular dominance columns in the cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 127

B. En colonnes de dominance oculaire. « This preferential response to one eye is called ocular dominance, and **neurons with the same ocular dominance are organized into ocular dominance columns in the cortex**. This means that each neuron encountered along a perpendicular electrode track responds best to the same eye. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 128

D. Les colonnes de dominance oculaire alternent entre les deux yeux. « Ocular dominance columns can also be observed during oblique penetrations of the cortex. **A given area of cortex usually contains cells that all respond best to one of the eyes**, but when the electrode is moved about 0.25 to 0.50 mm across the cortex, the neurons respond best to the other eye. Thus, the cortex consists of a series of columns that alternate in ocular dominance in a left-right-left-right pattern. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 129

B. 0,25 à 0,50 mm. « Ocular dominance columns can also be observed during oblique penetrations of the cortex. A given area of cortex usually contains cells that all respond best to one of the eyes, but **when the electrode is moved about 0.25 to 0.50 mm across the cortex**, the neurons respond best to the other eye. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 130

C. En un motif gauche-droite-gauche-droite. « Thus, the cortex consists of a series of columns that **alternate in ocular dominance in a left-right-left-right pattern**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 131

A. Le même œil. « This means that **each neuron encountered along a perpendicular electrode track responds best to the same eye**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 132

B. Qu’elles soient combinées en une unité plus grande appelée hypercolonne. « **Hubel and Wiesel proposed that all three types of columns could be combined into one larger unit called a hypercolumn.** Figure 4.22 is a schematic diagram called the ice-cube model (because it is shaped like an ice cube) that Hubel and Wiesel used to depict a hypercolumn. This diagram shows two side-by-side hypercolumns. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 133

A. Le modèle en cube de glace. « Hubel and Wiesel proposed that all three types of columns could be combined into one larger unit called a hypercolumn. **Figure 4.22 is a schematic diagram called the ice-cube model** (because it is shaped like an ice cube) that Hubel and Wiesel used to depict a hypercolumn. This diagram shows two side-by-side hypercolumns. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 134

D. Toutes ces réponses. « **Each hypercolumn contains a single location column** (since it responds to stimuli presented to a particular place on the retina), **left and right ocular dominance columns**, and **a complete set of orientation columns** that cover all possible stimulus orientations from 0 to 180 degrees. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 135

A. Comme une unité de traitement. « Hubel and Wiesel thought of a hypercolumn as a **“processing module” that processes information** about any stimulus that falls within the location on the retina served by the hypercolumn. They based this proposal on the fact that each hypercolumn contains a full set of orientation columns, so that when a stimulus of any orientation is presented to the area of retina served by the hypercolumn, neurons within the hypercolumn that respond to that orientation will be activated. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 136

A. Sur le fait que chaque hypercolonne contient un ensemble complet de colonnes d’orientation. « They based this proposal on the fact that **each hypercolumn contains a full set of orientation columns**, so that when a stimulus of any orientation is presented to the area of retina served by the hypercolumn, neurons within the hypercolumn that respond to that orientation will be activated. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 137

A. Les neurones de l’hypercolonne qui répondent à cette orientation seront activés. « They based this proposal on the fact that each hypercolumn contains a full set of orientation columns, so that **when a stimulus of any orientation is presented to the area of retina served by the hypercolumn**, neurons within the hypercolumn that respond to that orientation will be activated. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 138

B. De 0 à 180 degrés. « Each hypercolumn contains a single location column (since it responds to stimuli presented to a particular place on the retina), left and right ocular dominance columns, and **a complete set of orientation columns that cover all possible stimulus orientations from 0 to 180 degrees**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 85)

Answer 139

B. L’organisation des colonnes est plus complexe que le modèle initial. « Research done since Hubel and Wiesel’s proposal of the ice-cube model has shown that **the actual organization of the three kinds of columns is far more complex than the picture in Figure 4.22**. Figure 4.23a shows the results of an experiment that determined the layout of orientation columns using brain imaging. In some cases columns that prefer different orientations are lined up, as in Figure 4.23b (the arrow on the left of Figure 4.23a locates one of these areas), and in some cases orientations are arranged in a “pinwheel” as in Figure 4.23c, so all orientations are represented by traveling in a circle around a center point (see the small square in Figure 4.23a). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 140

A. Les résultats d’une expérience utilisant l’imagerie cérébrale pour déterminer la disposition des colonnes d’orientation. « Research done since Hubel and Wiesel’s proposal of the ice-cube model has shown that the actual organization of the three kinds of columns is far more complex than the picture in Figure 4.22. **Figure 4.23a shows the results of an experiment that determined the layout of orientation columns using brain imaging**. In some cases columns that prefer different orientations are lined up, as in Figure 4.23b (the arrow on the left of Figure 4.23a locates one of these areas), and in some cases orientations are arranged in a “pinwheel” as in Figure 4.23c, so all orientations are represented by traveling in a circle around a center point (see the small square in Figure 4.23a). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 141

A. En ligne droite. « In some cases columns that prefer different orientations are lined up, as in Figure 4.23b (the arrow on the left of Figure 4.23a locates one of these areas), and **in some cases orientations are arranged in a “pinwheel”** as in Figure 4.23c, so all orientations are represented by traveling in a circle around a center point (see the small square in Figure 4.23a). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 142

B. En “roue à aubes”. « In some cases columns that prefer different orientations are lined up, as in Figure 4.23b (the arrow on the left of Figure 4.23a locates one of these areas), and **in some cases orientations are arranged in a “pinwheel”** as in Figure 4.23c, so all orientations are represented by traveling in a circle around a center point (see the small square in Figure 4.23a). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 143

A. Un stimulus orienté active les neurones dans les colonnes d’orientation. « Both Hubel and Wiesel’s ice-cube model and the more complex arrangement of orientations shown in Figure 4.23 indicate that **an oriented stimulus activates neurons located in orientation columns in the cortex**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 144

B. En “roue à aubes”. « In some cases columns that prefer different orientations are lined up, as in Figure 4.23b (the arrow on the left of Figure 4.23a locates one of these areas), and **in some cases orientations are arranged in a “pinwheel”** as in Figure 4.23c, so all orientations are represented by traveling in a circle around a center point (see the small square in Figure 4.23a). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 145

A. Par une carte rétinotopique. « Looking at the tree results in an image on the retina, which then results in a pattern of activation on the striate cortex that looks something like the tree because of the **retinotopic map** in the cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 146

B. À cause du facteur de magnification. « Notice, however, that the activation is distorted compared to the actual object. More space is allotted to the top of the tree, where the observer is looking, because the **magnification factor** allots more space on the cortex to the parts of the image that fall on the observer’s fovea. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 147

C. Le sommet. « More space is allotted to the **top of the tree**, where the observer is looking, because the magnification factor allots more space on the cortex to the parts of the image that fall on the observer’s fovea. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 148

A. Une structure qui traite l’information d’une zone spécifique de la rétine. « Remember that a **hypercolumn processes information from a specific area of the retina**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 149

C. 90 degrés. « Since our trunk is oriented vertically, it will activate neurons within the **vertical (90-degree) orientation column** within each hypercolumn. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 150

B. Le tronc. « To appreciate how the tree is represented by activity that is occurring under the surface of the cortex, we will focus just on the **trunk**, which is essentially a long oriented bar. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 151

D. Plusieurs. « This area is fairly small, however, so a long bar will stimulate **a number of hypercolumns**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 152

B. Par plusieurs colonnes d’orientation séparées « Thus, a large stimulus, which stretches across the retina, will stimulate a number of different orientation columns, each in a location in the cortex that is separated from the other orientation columns. Therefore, our tree trunk has been translated into activity in a number of separated orientation columns, and this activity looks quite different from the shape of the stimulus, which is a single continuous bar. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 153

B. La représentation corticale d’un stimulus ne doit pas nécessairement ressembler au stimulus « Although it may be surprising that the tree is represented in a number of separate columns in the cortex, it simply confirms a basic property of our perceptual system: the cortical representation of a stimulus does not have to resemble the stimulus; it just has to contain information that represents the stimulus. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 154

A. Dans les colonnes d’orientation du cortex strié « The representation of the tree in the visual cortex is contained in the firings of neurons in separate cortical columns. Of course, this representation in the striate cortex is only the first step in representing the tree. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 155

B. Ils voyagent vers d’autres endroits du cortex pour un traitement ultérieur « As we will now see, signals from the striate cortex travel to a number of other places in the cortex for further processing. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 156

B. Elle est différente de la forme du stimulus « Therefore, our tree trunk has been translated into activity in a number of separated orientation columns, and this activity looks quite different from the shape of the stimulus, which is a single continuous bar. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 157

B. Contenir des informations qui représentent le stimulus « The cortical representation of a stimulus does not have to resemble the stimulus; it just has to contain information that represents the stimulus. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 158

B. Les signaux voyagent vers d’autres parties du cortex « As we will now see, signals from the striate cortex travel to a number of other places in the cortex for further processing. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 159

B. Des années 1960 et 1970. « So far, as we have been looking at types of neurons in the cortex, and how the cortex is organized into maps and columns, we have been describing research primarily from the **1960s and 1970s**. Most of the research during this time was concerned with the striate cortex or areas near the striate cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 160

C. Dans les années 1980. « Although a few pioneers had looked at visual functioning outside the striate cortex (Gross, Bender, & Rocha-Miranda, 1969), it wasn’t until the **1980s** that a large number of researchers began investigating how stimulation of the retina causes activity in areas far beyond the striate cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 161

D. L’existence de voies ou “flux” transmettant des informations du cortex strié à d’autres zones du cerveau. « One of the most influential ideas to come out of this research is that there are **pathways, or “streams,” that transmit information from the striate cortex to other areas in the brain**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 162

C. Leslie Ungerleider et Mortimer Mishkin. « This idea was introduced in 1982, when **Leslie Ungerleider and Mortimer Mishkin** described experiments that distinguished two streams that served different functions. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 163

D. Le cortex strié. « Most of the research during this time was concerned with the **striate cortex** or areas near the striate cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 164

A. Ils ont étudié le fonctionnement visuel en dehors du cortex strié. « Although a few pioneers had looked at **visual functioning outside the striate cortex** (Gross, Bender, & Rocha-Miranda, 1969), it wasn’t until the 1980s that a large number of researchers began investigating how stimulation of the retina causes activity in areas far beyond the striate cortex. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 86)

Answer 165

C. Ablation. « Ungerleider and Mishkin (1982) used a technique called **ablation** (also called lesioning). Ablation refers to the destruction or removal of tissue in the nervous system. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 88)

Answer 166

B. Choisir entre deux objets en fonction de leur forme. « In the object discrimination problem, a monkey was shown one object, such as a rectangular solid, and was then presented with a two-choice task like the one shown in Figure 4.26a, which included the “target” object (the rectangular solid) and another stimulus, such as the triangular shape. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 88)

Answer 167

A. Choisir l’objet le plus proche d’un repère. « The landmark discrimination problem is shown in Figure 4.26b. Here, the monkey’s task was to remove the food well cover that was closest to the tall cylinder. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 88)

Answer 168

C. Le lobe temporal. « In the ablation part of the experiment, part of temporal lobe was removed in some monkeys. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 88)

Answer 169

B. Le problème de discrimination d’objet. « After ablation, behavioral testing showed that the object discrimination problem was very difficult for these monkeys. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 88)

Answer 170

B. La voie du “quoi”. « This result indicates that the pathway that reaches the temporal lobes is responsible for determining an object’s identity. Ungerleider and Mishkin therefore called the pathway leading from the striate cortex to the temporal lobe the **what pathway**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 88)

Answer 171

A. Pousser l’objet cible pour obtenir une récompense. « If the monkey pushed aside the target object, it received the food reward that was hidden in a well under the object. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 88)

Answer 172

C. Déterminer la localisation des objets. « Other monkeys, which had their parietal lobes removed, had difficulty solving the landmark discrimination problem. **This result indicates that the pathway that leads to the parietal lobe is responsible for determining an object’s location**. Ungerleider and Mishkin therefore called the pathway leading from the striate cortex to the parietal lobe the where pathway. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 173

B. Le chemin du où. « **Ungerleider and Mishkin therefore called the pathway leading from the striate cortex to the parietal lobe the where pathway**. The what and where pathways are also called the ventral pathway (what) and the dorsal pathway (where)… » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 174

B. La partie supérieure. « …the upper part of the brain, where the parietal lobe is located, is the dorsal part of the brain. **The term dorsal refers to the back or the upper surface of an organism**; thus, the dorsal fin of a shark or dolphin is the fin on the back that sticks out of the water. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 175

A. Identifier les objets. « The discovery of two pathways in the cortex—one for **identifying objects (what)** and one for locating objects (where)… » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 176

A. Des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine. « Using both recordings from neurons and ablation, they found that properties of the ventral and dorsal streams are established by **two different types of ganglion cells in the retina**, which transmit signals to different layers of the LGN. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 177

A. La partie ventrale. « Ventral is the opposite of dorsal, hence it refers to the lower part of the brain. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 178

A. Enregistrements neuronaux et B. Ablation. « Using both **recordings from neurons and ablation**, they found that properties of the ventral and dorsal streams are established by two different types of ganglion cells in the retina… » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 179

C. Elles ont des connexions entre elles. « Although there is good evidence that the ventral and dorsal pathways serve different functions, it is important to note that (1) the pathways are not totally separated, but **have connections between them**; and (2) signals flow not only “up” the pathway toward the parietal and temporal lobes, but “back” as well. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 180

C. Vers le haut et vers le bas. « Although there is good evidence that the ventral and dorsal pathways serve different functions, it is important to note that (1) the pathways are not totally separated, but have connections between them; and (2) **signals flow not only “up” the pathway toward the parietal and temporal lobes, but “back” as well**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 181

A. Parce que nous devons identifier et localiser les objets. « It makes sense that there would be communication between the pathways because in our everyday behavior we need to both **identify and locate objects**, and we routinely coordinate these two activities every time we identify something (for example, a pencil) and take action with regard to it (picking up the pencil and writing with it). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 182

B. L’information qui va des centres supérieurs aux centres inférieurs. « The “backward” flow of information, called feedback, provides information from **higher centers that can influence the signals flowing into the system**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 183

C. Il influence les signaux entrants. « The “backward” flow of information, called feedback, provides information from higher centers that can **influence the signals flowing into the system**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 184

C. Un traitement influencé par les connaissances et les attentes. « This feedback is one of the mechanisms behind **top-down processing**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 185

A. Les flux de perception et d'action « **The ventral stream, they argue, is for perceiving objects**, an idea that fits with the idea of what. However, **they propose that the dorsal stream is for taking action, such as picking up an object**. Taking this action would involve knowing the location of the object, consistent with the idea of where, but it also involves a physical interaction with the object. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 186

A. Percevoir les objets « The ventral stream, they argue, **is for perceiving objects**, an idea that fits with the idea of what. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 187

C. Prendre des actions « However, they propose that the dorsal stream **is for taking action**, such as picking up an object. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 188

F. Toutes ces réponses « Evidence supporting the idea that the dorsal stream is involved in how to direct action is provided by the discovery of neurons in the parietal cortex that respond (1) when a monkey looks at an object and (2) when it reaches toward the object. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 189

B. Les effets comportementaux des lésions cérébrales « But the most dramatic evidence supporting the idea of a dorsal “action,” or how, stream comes from neuropsychology—the study of the behavioral effects of brain damage in humans. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 190

C. Les flux sont complémentaires « Taking this action would involve knowing the location of the object, consistent with the idea of where, but it also involves a physical interaction with the object. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 89)

Answer 191

B. Correspondre l’orientation d’une carte à une fente « One result of the brain damage was that D.F. was not able to **match the orientation of a card** held in her hand to different orientations of a slot. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 192

C. Empoisonnement au monoxyde de carbone « The method of determining dissociations was used by Milner and Goodale (1995) to study D.F., a 34-year-old woman who suffered damage to her ventral pathway from **carbon monoxide poisoning** caused by a gas leak in her home. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 193

C. Mal « Thus, D.F. performed **poorly in the static orientation-matching task** but did well as soon as action was involved. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 194

B. Placer une carte dans une fente « But when D.F. was asked to “**mail” the card through the slot**, she could do it! » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 195

B. Il y a deux mécanismes distincts pour juger l’orientation et coordonner la vision et l’action « Milner and Goodale interpreted D.F.’s behavior as showing that there is **one mechanism for judging orientation and another for coordinating vision and action**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 196

C. Détermination des dissociations « The method of **determining dissociations** was used by Milner and Goodale (1995) to study D.F. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 197

B. Une dissociation simple. « These results for D.F. demonstrate a single dissociation, which indicates that judging orientation and coordinating vision and action involve different mechanisms. **To show that these two functions are not only served by different mechanisms but are also independent of one another**, we have to demonstrate a double dissociation. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 198

B. Une double dissociation. « To show that these two functions are not only served by different mechanisms but are also **independent of one another**, we have to demonstrate a double dissociation. As we saw in the example of Alice and Bert, this involves finding a person whose symptoms are the opposite of D.F.’s, and such people do, in fact, exist. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 199

C. Il devrait être appelé le chemin du quoi. « Based on these results, Milner and Goodale suggested that **the ventral pathway should still be called the what pathway**, as Ungerleider and Mishkin suggested, but that a better description of the dorsal pathway would be the how pathway, or the action pathway, because it determines how a person carries out an action. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 200

B. Le chemin du comment. « Based on these results, Milner and Goodale suggested that the ventral pathway should still be called the what pathway, as Ungerleider and Mishkin suggested, but that **a better description of the dorsal pathway would be the how pathway**, or the action pathway, because it determines how a person carries out an action. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 201

D. Le chemin du où. « As sometimes occurs in science, not everyone uses the same terms. Thus, some researchers call the dorsal stream the where pathway and some call it the how or action pathway. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 202

F. Toutes ces réponses. « These people can judge visual orientation, but they can’t accomplish the task that combines vision and action. As we would expect, whereas D.F.’s ventral stream is damaged, these other people have damage to their dorsal streams. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 90)

Answer 203

C « Figure 4.30a shows a stimulus called the rod and frame illusion, which was used in one of these experiments. In this illusion, **the two small lines inside the tilted squares appear slightly tilted in opposite directions**, even though they are parallel vertical lines. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 204

A « Richard Dyde and David Milner (2002) presented their observers with two tasks: **a matching task** and a grasping task. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 205

B « Richard Dyde and David Milner (2002) presented their observers with two tasks: a matching task and **a grasping task**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 206

C « The results, shown on the right, indicate that observers had to adjust the matching stimulus to **5 degrees** from vertical in order to make it match their perception of the rod in the tilted square. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 207

A « Psychophysical experiments that measure how people perceive and react to visual illusions have demonstrated **the dissociation between perception and action** that was evident for D.F. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 208

C « Figure 4.30a shows a stimulus called **the rod and frame illusion**, which was used in one of these experiments. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 209

B « The results, shown on the right, indicate that observers had to adjust the matching stimulus to 5 degrees from vertical in order to make it **match their perception of the rod in the tilted square**. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 210

B. Une tâche de saisie. « In the grasping task, observers grasped a rod in the tilted square between their thumb and forefinger (Figure 4.30c). The positioning of the thumb and forefinger was measured using a special position-sensing device attached to the observers’ fingers. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 211

C. De manière appropriée. « The result, shown on the right, indicates that observers positioned their fingers appropriately for the rod’s orientation. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 212

C. Il n’a pas affecté la précision. « Thus the tilted square did not affect the accuracy of grasping. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 213

A. Parce qu’elles impliquent des flux de traitement différents. « The rationale behind this experiment is that because these two tasks involve different processing streams (matching task = ventral, or what, stream; grasping task = dorsal, or how, stream), they may be affected differently by the presence of the surrounding frames. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 214

C. Elles n’ont eu aucun effet sur la capacité d’agir. « In other words, conditions that created a perceptual visual illusion (matching task) had no effect on the person’s ability to take action with regard to the stimulus (grasping task). » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)

Answer 215

B. Que la perception et l’action sont servies par des mécanismes différents. « These results support the idea that perception and action are served by different mechanisms. » (Goldstein, 2010, p. 91)