RM glossary Flashcards
1
Q
Confidentiality
A
Confidentiality is a part of the ethical guidelines of psychologists and means that information between a patient and a therapist cannot be shared with anyone. This applies to patients and any health professional, including doctors and nurses.
2
Q
Confounding variable
A
A variable that is not the independent variable but does vary systematically with the independent variable. (Experiment design problem)
3
Q
Debriefing
A
Debriefing is the procedure that is conducted in psychological research with human subjects after an experiment or study has been concluded.
4
Q
Deception
A
Deception is the act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation.
5
Q
Dependent variable [DV]
A
An experiment involves the manipulation (changing) of one variable (the independent variable) to see if this affects another variable (the dependent variable).
6
Q
Ecological validity
A
How well you can generalise a study to different places/settings.
7
Q
Ethical guidelines (code of conduct)
A
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. However important the issue under investigation psychologists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants.
8
Q
Ethical issues
A
Ethical issues are conflicts about what is acceptable.
9
Q
External validity
A
External validity refers to how well you can generalise from research participants (apply the findings of a study) to people, places and times outside of the study.
10
Q
Extraneous variable [EV]
A
A variable that does not vary systematically with the independent variable but may affect the dependent variable. (Participant problem)
11
Q
Field experiment
A
Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables). An example is Hofling’s hospital study on obedience.
12
Q
Historical validity
A
How well you can generalise a study to different times.
13
Q
Hypothesis
A
A precise and testable statement about the assumes relationship between variables (in an experiment, between the IV and DV). It is essentially a prediction, but should be operationalised so that it is testable.
14
Q
Independent variable [IV]
A
An experiment involves the manipulation (changing) of one variable (the independent variable) to see if this affects another variable (the dependent variable).
15
Q
Informed consent
A
Informed consent ensures that a patient, client, and research participants are aware of all the potential risks and costs involved in a treatment or procedure.
16
Q
Internal validity
A
Internal validity refers to what happens inside of the study.
17
Q
Laboratory experiment
A
A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions. The variable which is being manipulated by the researcher is called the independent variable and the dependent variable is the change in behaviour measured by the researcher.
18
Q
Mundane realism
A
How a study mirrors the real world and how realistic it is.
19
Q
Natural Experiment
A
A natural experiment is an empirical study in which individuals (or clusters of individuals) are exposed to the experimental and control conditions that are determined by nature or by other factors outside the control of the investigators.
20
Q
Operationalise
A
Making everything quantifiable (measurable) and precise.
21
Q
Population validity
A
How well you can generalise a study to different people/populations.
22
Q
Privacy
A
Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to keep their lives and personal affairs out of public view, or to control the flow of information about themselves.
23
Q
Protection from harm
A
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. However important the issue under investigation psychologists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants.
24
Q
Quasi-experiment
A
Quasi-experiments are employed when the researcher is interested in independent variables that cannot be randomly assigned. Usually this happens when the independent variable in question is something that is an innate characteristic of the participants involved.
25
Random allocation
Participants are randomly allocated (without bias) to the different testing groups, so that the groups should be fairly similar.
26
Right to withdraw
Person to contact for answers to questions or in the event of injury or emergency. Subjects' right to confidentiality and the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences.
27
Standardised procedures
A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study. They make the study more objective as the investigator can’t explain the study or do the study in different ways to different participants. In this way, it reduces and extraneous variable known as investigator (researcher) bias.
28
Validity
Validity is the extent to which a study provides a true or legitimate explanation of behaviour. If there are problems with the study, it cannot provide a true explanation of behaviour (it is invalid). It can be divided into internal and external validity.
29
Correlation
A systematic relationship between two variables.
30
Correlation coefficient
The strength and direction of a correlation
31
Covert observation
In both naturalistic and controlled observations, the person being observed will have no knowledge of being observed, at least not before or during the study. This is called a covert (undercover) observation and participants may be informed afterwards.
32
Experimental design
The way the two levels of the IV are delivered is called the experimental design.
33
Generalisation
Applying the findings of a particular study to the population.
34
Independent group design
Participants are randomly allocated to one of two or more groups.
35
Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are matched on a key, relevant variable for the study (eg. IQ or age). The two members of the pair are allocated to different groups and performance is compared.
36
Naturalistic observation
In a naturalistic observation, behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it is normally.
37
Non-participant observation
In most cases, an observer is merely watching (or listening to) the behaviour of others and does not take part in the study (acts as a non-participant). The observer observes from a distance and does not interact with the people being observed.
38
Opportunity sample
Researchers ask whoever is convenient to take part in their study.
39
Overt observation
When the participants in the study are aware that they are being studied in an experiment.
40
Participant observation
In this case, the observer is part of the group being observed. In both covert and overt observations, the observer may be a participant, unbeknown to the people being observed. Being a part of the group may affect the researcher's objectivity, especially if they get to know others in the group well.
41
Repeated measures design
Each participant takes part in every condition of the experiment.
42
Volunteer sample
Advertise study opening and accept participants.
43
Aims
The aim of an investigation, driven by a theory to explain a given observation, states the intent of the study in general terms.
44
Bar chart
Bar charts are used for comparing two or more values. The bars can be horizontally or vertically oriented.
45
Behaviour categories
This involves breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g. hitting, kicking).
46
Bias
A Bias is a general pattern or tendency to think a certain way
47
Calculated value
The value that is calculated
48
Confederate
In a research experiment confederates are individuals who seem to be participants but in reality are part of the research team.
49
Content analysis
A method used to calculate qualitative data.
50
Continuous variable
A way of organizing distributions which can have any range of values in between differing values. An example of a continuous variable is weight or height - a person doesn't have to be either 150 pounds or 151 pounds. They could be 150.6 or 150.99999 pounds.
51
Control Group
The group that receives no treatment - IV and DV aren’t manipulated.
52
Controlled observation
In a controlled observation, some variables in the environment are regulated by the researcher - this means that the ‘naturalness’ of the environment is limited along with the participant behaviour.
53
Cost-benefit analysis
A term that refers both to: helping to appraise, or assess, the case for a project or proposal, which itself is a process known as project appraisal; and. an informal approach to making decisions of any kind.
54
Counterbalancing
A technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. With counterbalancing, the participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.
55
Co-variable
Variables in a correlation which vary (change) and are measured, and neither one is set or controlled by the researcher.
56
Critical value
The value that a test result must exceed in order for the researcher to conclude that the treatment or intervention he applied has a significant effect on the variable being investigated.
57
Curvilinear correlation
A type of relationship between two variables where as one variable increases, so does the other variable, but only up to a certain point, after which, as one variable continues to increase, the other decreases.
58
Demand characteristics
Where participants in the study subconsciously change their behaviour to try to fit in with the expectations of the study - often a weakness of controlled experiments.
59
Directional hypothesis
A one-tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls).
60
Effect size
Effect size is a quantitative measure of the magnitude of the experimenter effect. The larger the effect size the stronger the relationship between two variables.
61
Ethics committee
The Ethics Committee is a Standing Committee of the Board of Trustees. It promotes the ethical practice of psychology and is responsible for the Code of Ethics and Conduct and other ethical guidance within the Society.
62
Event sampling
Used to sample behaviour in observational research. It is where an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs.
63
Experiment
An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested.
64
Fraction
A fraction is a proportion and is usually not a whole number.
65
Histogram
A graphical depiction of continuous data using bars of varying height, similar to a bar graph but with blocks on the x-axis adjoining one another so as to denote their continuous nature.
66
Inter-observer reliability
The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. This refers to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior.
67
Intervening variable
A hypothetical variable used to explain causal links between other variables. Intervening variables cannot be observed in an experiment (that's why they are hypothetical In psychology, the intervening variable is sometimes called a mediator variable
68
Interview
Interviews are self-report techniques that involve an experimenter asking participants questions (generally on a one-to-one basis) and recording their responses.
69
Interview bias
A partiality towards a preconceived response based on the structure, phrasing, or tenor of questions asked in the interviewing process. Questions laced with interviewer bias can influence respondents in such a way that it distorts the outcome of the interview.
70
Investigator effects
Investigator effects can occur when researchers unintentionally influence experimental results in some manner. It can happen if the researcher unconsciously directs participants to behave or respond in a particular manner.
71
Linear correlation
Correlation is said to be linear if the ratio of change is constant. In other words, when all the points on the scatter diagram tend to lie near a line which looks like a straight line, the correlation is said to be linear.
72
Mean
A measure of Central Tendency which is more commonly known as an "average."
73
Measure of dispersion
The measures of dispersion you use in psychology statistics show you the spread or variability of the variable you are measuring. The three main ones are the range, the interquartile range and the standard deviation.
74
Measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency are descriptive statistics that depict the overall 'central' trend of a set of data. There are three key measures: mean, median and mode.
75
Median
A measure of Central Tendency that is defined as the midpoint in an array of numbers.
76
Meta-analysis
When scientists want to know the answer to a question that's been studied a great deal, they conduct something called a meta-analysis, pooling data from multiple studies to arrive at one combined answer.
77
Mode
A measure of Central Tendency which is defined by the most common number in an array.
78
Negative correlation
When two variables have a negative correlation, they have an inverse relationship. This means that as one variable increases, the other decreases, and vice versa
79
Negative skewed distribution
In statistics, a negatively skewed (also known as left-skewed) distribution is a type of distribution in which more values are concentrated on the right side (tail) of the distribution graph while the left tail of the distribution graph is longer.
80
Non-directional hypothesis
A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified. E.g., there will be a difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children and adults.
81
Normal distribution
An arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a bell-shaped pattern where the mean, median and/or mode falls in the centre at the highest peak.
82
Observer bias
Observer bias occurs when the observers (or researcher team) know the goals of the study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations during the study.
83
One-tailed test
A statistical test in which the critical area of a distribution is one-sided so that it is either greater than or less than a certain value, but not both.
84
Open questions
Open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words. Open-ended questions enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as they like in their own words.
85
Order effect
Order effects refer to differences in research participants' responses that result from the order (e.g., first, second, third) in which the experimental materials are presented to them.
86
Order of magnitude
An order of magnitude is the class of scale or magnitude of any amount, where each class contains values of a fixed ratio to the class preceding it.
87
Peer review
Peer review is a process that takes place before a study is published to check the quality and validity of the research, and to ensure that the research contributes to its field. The process is carried out by experts in that particular field of psychology.
88
Percentage
A percentage is a way of expressing numbers as fractions of 100 and is often denoted using the percent sign.
89
Pilot study
Pilot studies are small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements. They are helpful in identifying potential issues early, which can then be rectified before committing to the length and expense of a full investigation.
90
Target population
The target population is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn.
91
Positive correlation
A positive correlation occurs when two variables are related and as one variable increases/decreases the other also increases/decreases (i.e. they both move in the same direction).
92
Positive skewed distribution
A distribution is positively skewed if the scores fall toward the lower side of the scale and there are very few higher scores. Positively skewed data is also referred to as skewed to the right because that is the direction of the 'long tail end' of the chart.
93
Presumptive consent
Where it is impossible for the researcher to ask the actual participants, a similar group of people can be asked how they would feel about taking part. If they think it would be OK then it can be assumed that the real participants will also find it acceptable. This is known as presumptive consent.
94
Primary data
Information that is observed or collected directly from first hand experience.
95
Probability (p)
In general, psychologists use a probability ('p') ≤ 0.05, which means that there is less than or equal to a 5% probability the results did occur by chance.
96
Qualitative data
Information in words that cannot be counted or quantified (eg. expressing meanings and feelings).
97
Quantitative data
Information that represents how much/how long/how many - anything with a numerical value.
98
Questionnaire
A research instrument composed of a series of questions designed to gather information about a certain topic.
99
Range
A statistical measure of variance. It is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and then adding one.
100
Ratio
Ratio refers to the number of responses that are required in order to receive reinforcement.
101
Review
A literature review is a comprehensive but concise summary of the research that has been done on a particular topic. - The purpose of a literature review is to paint a picture of the field's collective knowledge and research on a specific topic while highlighting where further research may need to be conducted.
102
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.
103
Scatter gram
A visual summary demonstrating the relation between two variables; it illustrates the scores on one variable plotted against scores on another variable.
104
Secondary data
Information used in a research study that was collected by someone else or for a purpose other than the current one.
105
Sign test
The Sign test is a non-parametric test that is used to test whether or not two groups are equally sized.
106
Significance
This is a very important and common term in psychology, but one that many people have problems with. Technically, statistical significance is the probability of some result from a statistical test occurring by chance.
107
Significant figure
The term significant figures refers to the number of important single digits (0 through 9 inclusive) in the coefficient of an expression in scientific notation.
108
Skewed distribution
A skewed distribution is one where frequency data is not spread evenly (i.e. normally distributed); the data is clustered at one end.
109
Social desirability bias
In the context of participating in a psychology study, social desirability bias refers to the tendency to present one's self in a favorable way rather than to give accurate answers.
110
Standard deviation
Standard deviations are scores around the mean of a distribution. It measures how much a set of scores is dispersed around an average measure of variability.
111
Stratified sample
Subgroups (or strata) within a population are identified (eg. boys and girls; age groups: 10-12, years 13-15 years etc.). Participants are obtained from each of the strata in proportion to their occurrence in the population. Selection from the strata is done using a random technique.
112
Structured interview
A method for gathering information, used particularly in surveys and personnel selection, in which questions, their wordings, and their order of administration are determined in advance.
113
Structured observation
Structured observation (also known as systemic observation) is a data collecting method in which researchers gather data without direct involvement with the participants (the researchers watch from afar) and the collection technique is structured in a well defined and procedural manner.
114
Systematic sample
Use a predetermined system to select participants, such as selecting every 6th, 14th, 20th (or whatever) person from a phonebook. The numerical interval is applied consistently (eg. if you start by selecting every 6th person, you do this to create your entire sample).
115
Table of critical values
The table entries are the critical values (percentiles) for the distribution. One-sided is the significance level for the one-sided upper critical value--the table entry is the critical value. Two-sided gives the two-sided significance level--the table entry is the corresponding two-sided critical value.
116
Test statistic
A test statistic is a random variable that is calculated from sample data and used in a hypothesis test. You can use test statistics to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis. The test statistic compares your data with what is expected under the null hypothesis.
117
Time sampling
Time sampling is a method of sampling behaviour in an observation study and is where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals. For example, every 10 seconds.
118
Two-tailed test
Two-tailed test, also known as the non directional hypothesis, defined as the standard test of significance to determine if there is a relationship between variables in either direction.
119
Unstructured interview
An unstructured interview is an interview in which there is no specific set of predetermined questions, although the interviewers usually have certain topics in mind that they wish to cover during the interview. Unstructured interviews flow like an everyday conversation and tend to be more informal and open-ended.
120
Volunteer bias
The term volunteer bias refers to a specific bias that can occur when the subjects who volunteer to participate in a research project are different in some ways from the general population.
121
Zero correlation
A zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the variables. A correlation of –1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, meaning that as one variable goes up, the other goes down.
