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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

Define psychopathology

A

it is the scientific study of psychological disorders (mental illnesses)

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2
Q

What is deviation of social norms?

A

going against the rules that society has about what are acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs

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3
Q

Give three evaluations for deviation oif social norms

A
  1. social norms are not stable - homosexuaity (removed in 1973) and Russian dissidents
  2. culture bias is an issue because both major diagnostic tools made by WEIRD teams (WEIRD = Westerns Educated Institutionalised Rich Democratic)
  3. gender bias - research overwhemingly done by/for/wit men Eg. stress response ‘tend+befriend’
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4
Q

what is statistical infrequency?

A

a persons trait, thinking or behaviour would be considered an indicitation of abnormality if it was found to be numerically (statistically) rare/uncommon/anomalus (any indicidual who falls outside the ‘normal distribution’)

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5
Q

What does DSM stand for?

A

the diagnostic and statistical manual of statistical disorders

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6
Q

What is the DSM (the diagnostic and statistical manual of statistical disorders) for?

A

it lists/describes all mental disorders - written by the American Psychological Association (APA)

  • currently on its fifth addition
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7
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

refers to differences in meanings given to behaviours between and within cultures - this can be an issue for diagnosis in a multicultural society

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8
Q

Define social norms

A

the rules that a society has about what are acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs

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9
Q

What is faliure to function adequately?

A

Most people with psychological disorders experience considerable suffering and general inability to cope with everyday activities - causing distress to themselves or others/they are unable to function adequately

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10
Q

Give an example of failure to function adequately

A

having to clean germs off of items constantly = late for work = fired = can’t cope without job = diagnosed with OCD

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11
Q

What is humanism?

A

a modern secular belief system that treats human experience as the ultimate source of meaning - considers people’s happiness above fixed diagnostic tools

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12
Q

What is a ‘person-centred approach’ and where is it used?

A

when the patients subjective feelings are what matters

used in humanist healthcare

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13
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health and who proposed it?

A

looks at the positives and not the negatives - mental HEALTH not mental ILLNESS

Proposed by Jahoda (1958)

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14
Q

In ‘deviation from ideal mental health’ what did Jahoda identify?

A

6 major criteria for optimal living - claimed anyone lacking these qualities would be vulnerable to mental disorder and therefore ‘abnormal’

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15
Q

What were Jahoda’s 6 major criteria for optimal living?

A
  1. self-attitudes - having high self-esteem and a strong sense of identity, high self-respect and a positive self-concept
  2. self-actualization - the extent to which an individual develops their full capabilities i.e. fulfilling their potential
  3. integration - being able to cope with stressful situations
  4. autonomy - being independent and self-reliant and able to make personal decisions
  5. having and accurate perception of reality - perceiving the world in a non-distorted fashion. Having an objective and realistic view of the world
  6. mastery of the environment - being competent in all aspects of life and being able to meet the demands of any situation e.g. the ability to love, function at work and in interpersonal relationships, adjust to new situations and solve problems.
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16
Q

Define phobias

A

a group of mental disorders within the category of anxiety disorders - irrational fears of an object or situation. The anxiety interferes with normal living

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17
Q

Give 2 emotional (feeling) characteristics of phobias

A
  • fear

- worry

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18
Q

Give 2 cognitive (thinking) characteristics of phobias

A
  • overthinking (rominate)

- worst-case (catastrophe)

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19
Q

Give 3 behavioural (doing) characteristics of phobias

A
  • avoidance
  • fight/flight
  • panic/anger
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20
Q

define classical conditioning

A

a learned association between a stimulus and a response

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21
Q

define operant conditioning

A

behaviour modification using reinforcement and punishment

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22
Q

What is the two-process model (Mower (1947))?

A

it describes the combination of both classical and operant conditioning - it assumes phobias result from learning

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23
Q

Describe the two-process model (Mower (1947)) in 2 steps

A
  • patients must have associated something neutral with a traumatic consequence
  • they then strengthen the conducted association (fear) through avoidance behaviour (via negative reinforcement)
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24
Q

Explain in 3 ways how SLT can explain some phobias

A
  1. Observational learning - identify with role mode; watch their actions
  2. Modelling - imitate phobic behaviours of role models
  3. Vicarious reinforcement - indirect reward through seeing a role models successful avoidance
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25
Q

What was the aim of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) ‘Little Albert’ study?

A

to provide empirical evidence that human emotional responses could be learned through classical conditioning

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26
Q

Describe the procedure of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) ‘Little Albert’ study in 5 steps

A
  1. lab experiment with 1 participant (11 month old boy - Albert)
  2. Albert was presented with various stimuli (white rat, rabbit and cotton wool) - his responses were filmed and he showed no reaction
  3. a fear reaction was then induced into Albert by striking a steel bar with a hammer behind his head, startling him
  4. They then made this noise when he reached to touch the rat, this was repeated 3 times
  5. variations of these conditioning techniques continued for 3 months
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27
Q

What were the findings of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) ‘Little Albert’ study?

A

Albert developed fear towards the rat - which he also displayed with a lesser intensity to other white furry objects (eg. a white fur coat) - this is known as generalisation

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28
Q

What were the conclusions of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) ‘Little Albert’ study?

A

conditioned emotional responses, including love, fear and phobias, are required as a direct result of environmental experiences, which can transfer and persist, possibly indefinitely, unless removed by counter-conditioning

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29
Q

Briefly explain what Di Gallo (1996) found in his phobia study (car crash one)

A
  • reported that around 20% of people experiencing traumatic car accidents developed a phobia of travelling in cars, especially at speed
  • this can be explained by classical conditioning as the car becomes associated with the crash
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30
Q

What are the two types of behavioural therapy to treat phobias?

A
  • flooding

- systematic desensitisation (counterconditioning)

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31
Q

What is flooding?

A

a sudden exposure of the patient to the phobic stimulus (until they are no longer affected by it)

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32
Q

What is counterconditioning?

A

learning a new response to the phobic stimulus (relaxation used instead of anxiety (flooding uses anxiety))

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33
Q

What is reciprocal inhibition?

A

the idea that you cannot feel afraid and relaxed at the same time meaning that one emotion prevents the other

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34
Q

Explain the 5 stages of systematic desensitisation

A
  1. first stage = agreeing a hierarchy
  2. second stage = teach relaxation techniques (eg. breathing)
  3. third stage = gradual exposure to feared stimulus using hierarchy
  4. reciprocal inhibition occurs
  5. this causes counterconditioning
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35
Q

Give one other treatment to extreme phobias (not therapy)

A

prescribing BZ’s (benzodiazepines) (eg. valium/diazepam)

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36
Q

Give 1 disadvantage of prescribing BZ’s

A

they have unpleasant side effects

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37
Q

Give 1 advantage of prescribing BZ’s

A

they are very cheap

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38
Q

Give 1 advantage of using flooding to treat phobias

A
  1. highly effective and quicker than alternatives
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39
Q

Give 2 disadvantages of using flooding to treat phobias

A
  1. highly traumatic therapy and can make phobias worse in some cases
  2. less effective for more complex phobias such as social phobias
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40
Q

Give 2 advantages of using systematic desensitisation to treat phobias

A
  1. it’s an effective therapy

2. most patients seem to prefer it

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41
Q

Give 1 disadvantage of using systematic desensitisation AND flooding to treat phobias

A

when one phobia disappears another may appear in its place

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42
Q

Give 3 emotional (feeling) characteristics of depression

A
  • loneliness (helpless/hopeless)
  • low motivation (avolition)
  • numb (anhedonia)
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43
Q

Give 3 cognitive (thinking) characteristics of depression

A
  • suicidal/self-injurious thoughts (suicidal ideation)
  • fear the worst outcome (catastrophizing)
  • restricted range of thinking (ruminates)
44
Q

Give 4 behavioural (doing) characteristics of depression

A
  • not leaving house (avoidance)
  • self-harm
  • sleep disturbance (up or down) (insomnia or hypersomnia)
  • appetite: gain or loss
45
Q

Define depression

A

it is characterised as a mood disorder by low mood and low energy levels

46
Q

What are the 2 main cognitive approaches to explaining depression?

A

1 - Ellis’ ABC model (1962)

2 - Beck’s negative triad (1967)

47
Q

T/F - cognitive psychologists are most concerned with how rational thinking (cognitions) leads to depression

A

FALSE - cognitive psychologists are most concerned with how IRRATIONAL thinking (cognitions) leads to depression

48
Q

What did Ellis (1962 - ABC model) believe that irrational beliefs are due to?

A

Mustabatory thinking

49
Q

Explain Ellis’ ABC model (1962)

A

NORMAL = A (activating event) > B (rational belief) > C (consequence)

DEPRESSED = A (activating event) > B (irrational belief) > C (consequence)

50
Q

What is mustabatory thinking?

A

cognitions containing fixed terms

EG.

  • i CANNOT be respected without showing success
  • I MUST receive positive feedback or I am worthless
51
Q

Explain Beck’s negative triad (1967):

             Perception of self
         >              ^^^^             <
        /        core schema         \
      <       ^^                   ^^         > perception of world  perception of future
A
  1. negative core schema leads to negative cognitive bases
  2. negative cognitive biases affect our perception, causing irrational perception of events
  3. two cognitive processes are predicted by the model: ruminating and catastrophizing
52
Q

define ruminating

A

repetitive circular thinking with each thought feeding the next

53
Q

define catastrophizing

A

irrationally negative view and/or predictions of situations

54
Q

What does CBT stand for?

A

CBT = Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

55
Q

define cognitions

A

they are theoretical constructs, so we cannot directly interact with them

56
Q

What is CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy?

A

a talking therapy that aims to identify irrational core beliefs and uses practical activities to challenge and change them (often used when treating depression)

57
Q

What 2 elements does CBT involve?

A

cognitive = identifying and challenging irrational thoughts

behavioural = once irrational thoughts have been identified, coping strategies are developed (behavioural change)

58
Q

What was the first CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy)

A

Ellis’ REBT - the ABC model was extended to include D, E and F

59
Q

What did the D, E and F stand for in the updated version of Ellis’ ABC model (CBT)?

A 
D = Disputing irrational cognitions
E = Effects of disputing effective attitudes (UPR)
F = Feelings that result from the process
60
Q

In 3 steps, explain Ellis’ REBT (the first CBT)

A
  1. we aim to identify core beliefs in assessment, using principles of the ABC model and negative triad
  2. we then dispute the irrational cognitions and/or attitudes
  3. Finally, we discuss and rationalise emotions
61
Q

What are the 3 principles of CBT?

A
  1. Homework
  2. Behavioural activation
  3. Unconditional positive regard (UPR)
62
Q

What is homework (principle of CBT)?

A

we set patients tasks between sessions to challenge irrational beliefs and provide a basis for next session - they must be accessible and agreed

63
Q

What is behavioural activation (principle of CBT)?

A

activity is physiologically and psychologically rewarding - any increase is helpful for recovery

64
Q

What is unconditional positive regard (UPR) (principle of CBT)?

A

this humanist principle is part of all modern therapy - patients who feel valued and trusted are more motivated

65
Q

GIve 3 evaluation points for CBT

A
  • not useful for some people
  • drugs work too - they’re also much quicker and cheaper
  • research shows CBT and drugs are best used together (NICE, 2009)
66
Q

define depressive realism

A

depressed people are often more rational - they have a self-serving bias

67
Q

Give 3 emotional characteristics of OCD

A
  • scared
  • restless
  • worried
68
Q

Give 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD

A
  • irrational thinking
  • repetitive thinking
  • intrusive thoughts
69
Q

Give 1 behavioural characteristic of OCD

A
  • uncontrollable impulses
70
Q

What does OCD stand for?

A

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

71
Q

What is OCD?

A
  • classed as an anxiety disorder, characterised by obsessive thinking and repetitive behaviour
72
Q

Define obsessions

A

internal components because they are intrusive thoughts (something you think)

73
Q

Define compulsions

A

external components because they are repetitive behaviours (something you do) - these reduce anxiety

74
Q

Name the 2 main biological explanations for OCD

A
  1. Neural explanations

2. Genetic explanations

75
Q

Define ‘Neural explanations’ of OCD

A

the occurrence of OCD through abnormal functioning of neural (brain) mechanisms and neurotransmitters

76
Q

Define ‘Genetic explanations’ of OCD

A

hereditary influences through genetic transmission from parent to offspring (i.e. inheritance)

77
Q

What are the two genetic explanations of OCD

A

COMT and SERT (5-HTT)

78
Q

Explain how COMT can genetically explain OCD in 3 steps

A
  1. it produces an enzyme that degrades dopamine
  2. a low activity variant of the gene is found in OCD patients
  3. their impaired inability to degrade dopamine leads to higher levels in the synapse (particularly after stress)
79
Q

Explain how SERT (5-HTT) can genetically explain OCD in 3 steps

A
  1. produces a protien that transports serotonin back to the presynaptic neuron (reuptake)
  2. OCD patients have a high activity varient of this gene
  3. Removing serotonin too quickly results in lower levels received and a shorter duration of serotonins effects
80
Q

What are the two neurotransmitters that can affect OCD if we have abnormal levels of them?

A
  1. dopamine levels being too high

2. too low levels of serotnin

81
Q

What is dopamine?

A

an excitatory neurotransmitter

82
Q

what is dopamine associated with? (4 things)

A

reward, movement, memory, waking up

83
Q

What is the function of dopamine?

A

its main behavioural function is habit forming

84
Q

What is serotonin?

A

an inhibitory neurotransmitter

85
Q

what is serotonin associated with? (3 things)

A

appetite, control of behavioural impulses, mood

86
Q

What is the function of serotonin?

A

main behavioural function is impulse control

87
Q

What 3 areas is dopamine released into?

A
  • emotional
  • executive
  • and memory areas
88
Q

What 3 areas is serotonin released into?

A
  • emotional
  • memory
  • and muscle-control areas
89
Q

Name 3 abnormal brain circuits associated with OCD

A
  • OFC
  • Thalamus
  • Caudate nucleus
90
Q

What is the OFC?

A

it sends a signal to the thalamus about things that are worrying

91
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

it leads to impulse to act and then to stop activity when the impulse lessens

92
Q

What is the caudate nucleus?

A

it normally supresses signals from the OFC

  • if damaged it can;t do this and so thalamus is alerted about it - it sends signals back to the OFC acting as a worry circuit
93
Q

Show the 5 steps of the OCD process if COMT activity is low

A
  • COMT activity low
  • Dopamine levels high
  • caudate nucleus overactive
  • hypervigilance (anxiety)
  • obsessive thoughts
94
Q

Show the 5 steps of the OCD process if SERT activity is high

A
  • SERT activity high
  • serotonin levels low
  • Orbitofrontal cortex underactive
  • impulsiveness
  • compulsive behaviour
95
Q

What are the 3 most popular drug treatments for OCD in order of preference?

A
  1. SSRIs
  2. Tricyclics
  3. Benzodiasepines (BZs)
96
Q

What does SSRI stand for?

A

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

97
Q

T/F - SSRIs are the most commonly used drug treatments for OCD

A

TRUE

98
Q

Give 3 examples of SSRIs

A
  • fluxoetine (prozac)
  • sertaline (zoloft)
  • citalpram (celexa)
99
Q

Explain how SSRIs work in 2 steps

A
  • they block all the reuptake of serotonin from synapses while allowing all other processes to happen normally (‘selective’ of serotonin)
  • this leads to a ‘build-up’ of serotin in synpses because it can’t be removed
100
Q

T/F - tricyclics tend to have less powerful/wider effects than SSRIs so are rarely prescribed first

A

FALSE - tricyclics tend to have MORE powerful/wider effects than SSRIs so are rarely prescribed first

101
Q

Give 2 examples of tricyclics

A
  • amitriptyline (elavil)

- clomiprinamine (anafranil)

102
Q

Explain how tricyclics work in 2 steps

A
  1. block reuptake of seotonin and noradrenaline - this works because both neurotransmitters are in the same chemical family
  2. this causes them to build up in the synapses, increasing their effects (^^serotonin in OCD patients = better impulse control, ^^noradrenaline in OCD patients = deel ‘awake’ and motivated (helps with often - comorbid depression))
103
Q

Give 3 examples of BZs (benzodiasepines)

A
  • alprazolam (xanax)
  • diazepam (valium)
  • lorazepam (ativan)
104
Q

T/F - BZs work by mimicking GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A

TRUE - they work in the same way, they increase the activity of its receptor sites to mimic its effects

105
Q

Explain how BZs work in 3 steps

A
  1. they bind to receptors, with chloride channels - causing them to open (GABA normally does this)
  2. negative chloride ions (Cl-) flood into the postsynaptic cell
  3. this creates IPSP (hyperpolarisation) - reducing neuron activity - addressing impulsivity and anxiety

Psychology (12 decks)

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