Attachment Flashcards
1
Q
What is attachment?
A
a close two-way emotional bond between two individuals where each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security. It endures over time and serves to protect the infant.
2
Q
What are the three ways in which we can recognise attachment through what people display?
A
- proximity
- separation anxiety
- secure-base behaviour
3
Q
What does proximity mean in the context of attachment?
A
when people try to stay physically close to those who they are attached to
4
Q
What is separation anxiety?
A
when people are distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence
5
Q
What is secure-base behaviour?
A
even when we are independent, we tend to make regular contact with out attachment figures
we regularly return to them while playing so they are a base from which to explore
6
Q
What is a caregiver?
A
any person who provides care for a child
eg. parent, grandparent, sibling, other family member or childminder etc.
7
Q
At what ages are you classed as an infant?
A
usually refers to a child first year of life although some psychologists also include the second year
8
Q
What is a caregiver-infant interaction?
A
this refers to the communication between a caregiver and infant
It is believed that these interactions have important functions for the child’s social development, and form the basis of the attachment between the two. Particularly, the more responsive or sensitive they are to each other’s signals, the deeper the bond.
9
Q
What are the two different types of caregiver-infant interactions?
A
- reciprocity
2. interactional synchrony
10
Q
What is a reciprocity interaction?
A
- a type of caregiver-infant interaction
- it is a two-way or mutual process - each party responds to the others signals to sustain the interaction (turn-taking )
11
Q
How do you know when a caregiver-infant interaction is reciprocal?
A
it is reciprocal when each person responds to the other and the behaviour of each party elicits a response from the other (eg. baby points mum looks)
12
Q
What is an interactional synchrony interaction?
A
- a type of caregiver-infant interaction
- when a caregiver and infant reflect the actions and emotions of the other in a coordinated way. they mirror each other in terms of their facial and body movements
13
Q
How do you know when a caregiver-infant interaction is an interactional synchrony?
A
it is different to a reciprocity interaction as in interactional synchrony interactions behaviour is the same (eg. mum sad baby sad) whereas in reciprocity it is the same (eg. baby points mum looks)
14
Q
What did Meltzoff and Moore study (1977) (still face experiment)?
A
selected 4 different stimuli (3 different faces and hand gesture) and observed the behaviour id infants in response
15
Q
What type of observation was Meltzoff and Moore’s (1977) still face experiment?
A
controlled observation
16
Q
What was the method of Meltzoff and Moore’s (1977) still face experiment?
A
each observer asked to note all instances if infant tongue protrusions and head movements using the following behavioural categories:
- mouth opening
- termination of mouth opening
- tongue protrusions
- termination of tongue protrusions
17
Q
What was the aim of Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
to investigate attachment formation - particularly the age, emotional intensity and target
18
Q
What was the method of Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
longitudinal study where the babies and mothers were studied every month for the first year and then again in 18 months - measured the separation anxiety and stranger anxiety in the babies over time
19
Q
How many babies were used in Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
60 babies (31 male, 29 female)
20
Q
Where the families from in Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
Glasgow, Scotland
21
Q
What class were the families of in Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
Mostly working-class families
22
Q
What were the two things measured in Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
Separation anxiety and stranger anxiety
23
Q
How was separation anxiety measured in the babies in Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
by asking parents what protest behaviours babies did (self-report; semi-structures interviews)
24
Q
How was stranger anxiety measured in the babies in Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study?
A
by observing the babies response to unfamiliar adults (controlled observation)
25
Give 3 findings of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study
1. between 25 and 32 weeks of age 50% of babies showed separation anxiety towards a specific adult (their primary caregiver (PC))
2. this PC attachment tended to be with the most responsive, interactive and sensitive caregiver (who shows the most reciprocity (not necessarily who the baby spent the most time with))
3. by 40 weeks, 80% of babies has specific attachments - 30% had multiple attachments
26
How many stages were in Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model?
4
27
Give two characteristics of someone in stage 1 (indiscriminate attachment) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model
indiscriminate attachment:
- no preference for any objects/people
- preference for social stimuli
28
Give two characteristics of someone in stage 2 (beginnings of attachment) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model
beginnings of attachment:
- can distinguish familiar people from strangers
- no stranger anxiety - comforted by anyone
29
Give two characteristics of someone in stage 3 (discriminate attachment) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model
discriminate attachment:
- separation anxiety begins
- preference for one person (primary attachment figures
30
Give two characteristics of someone in stage 4 (multiple attachments) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model
multiple attachments
- discriminate attachments are formed with others
- secondary attachment figure is of ten father
31
At what age did Schaffer and Emerson expect someone to be in stage 1 (indiscriminate attachment) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model?
birth - 2 months
32
At what age did Schaffer and Emerson expect someone to be in stage 2 (beginnings of attachment) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model?
2-4 months
33
At what age did Schaffer and Emerson expect someone to be in stage 3 (discriminate attachment) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model?
4-7 months
34
At what age did Schaffer and Emerson expect someone to be in stage 4 (multiple attachments) of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) stage model?
7 months +
35
What do animal studies in psychology research?
they look at the formation of early bonds between non-human parents and their offspring
attachment-like behaviour is common to a range of species so animal studies can HELP US TO UNDERSTAND ATTACHMENT IN HUMANS
36
What is imprinting?
an innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother, which take place during a specific time in development
37
What were two features that were thought to be true about the critical period?
1. irreversible
| 2. long-lasting
38
What is sexual imprinting?
the idea that imprinting can affect adult mate preferences
39
What was the aim of Lorenz's (1935) animal study?
to investigate infant attachment in geese
40
What were the two IV's in Lorenz's (1935) animal study?
IV(1) = chick raised from birth by mother
IV(2) = chick raised from birth by Lorenz
41
What was the DV of Lorenz's (1935) animal study?
DV = following the mother or Lorenz
42
What were the results of Lorenz's (1935) animal study?
the chicks always followed the first adult they saw (eg. mother or Lorenz depending on their IV(1 or 2)) - the effect seemed permanent
43
What were the conclusions of Lorenz's (1935) animal study?
that there is a critical period just after birth when infants imprint on the first adult that they come into contact with
44
What was the aim of Harlow's (1959) animal study?
to investigate infant attachment in monkeys
45
What were the three IV's in Harlow's (1959) animal study?
IV(A) = food on wire mother (4 monkeys)
IV(B) = food on cloth mother (4 monkeys)
IV(C) = stranger anxiety/secure base behaviour (scary robot/new toys)
46
What were the two DV's in Harlow's (1959) animal study?
DV(A/B) = time spent with each mother
DV(C) = secure base behaviour and mother choice
47
What were the results of Harlow's (1959) animal study?
- all monkeys spent much longer with the cloth mother - regardless of food location
- all used cloth mother for comfort
- all explored new toys more willingly with cloth mother in the room
48
What 3 conclusions were made on Harlow's (1959) animal study?
- infants seek comfort over food
- there's a critical period for attachment
- attachment is crucial - lack of mother resulted in abnormal development in monkeys (parenting/mating/social skills) and recovery was only possible if mother attachment happened in first 3 months
49
Give two implications for humans found from animal studies:
1. babies do not instantly impair like birds, but the same concepts of attachment holds true (Lorenz (1935))
2. Bowlby developed a theory of attachment suggesting there is a critical period for developing in humans (about 2 yrs) and if an attachment is not formed in this time then a child will suffer from IRREVERSIBLE DEVELOPMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
50
What does learning theory suggest about attachment?
that children LEARN to love and build an attachment with whoever feeds them
51
Give the two steps in the process of classical conditioning for attachments:
step 1.
food (UCS) ---------> baby feels pleasure (UCR)
mother (NS) --------> baby doesn't respond (no response)
step 2.
mother (NS) + food (UCS) -----> baby feels pleasure (UCR to food)
mother (CS) --------> baby feels pleasure (CR to mother)
52
What is operant conditioning?
learning depending on consequences
53
What does positive reinforcement do?
increases likelihood of a behaviour being repeated because it involves a reward for the behaviour
54
What does negative reinforcement do?
increases the likelihood of behaviour being replicated because it involves the removal of the escape from unpleasant consequences
55
Give an example of positive reinforcement in attachment:
baby cries = baby receives reward (food relieves hunger)
this reward reinforces the action so baby repeats it
56
Give an example of negative reinforcement in attachment:
baby cries + mum relieves problem (by feeding or cuddling them) = mum receives reward (baby stops crying)
the reward reinforces the action, so mum repeats it
57
Which is more effective/powerful - negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement?
negative reinforcement
58
What is drive reduction?
this theory argues that when we feel discomfort, this creates a drive to reduce this comfort
59
Give an example of drive reduction:
need e.g water/food = drive e.g hunger/thirst = drive reducing behaviours e.g eating/drinking
60
What is classical conditioning?
learning through association
this means that we learn to associate two stimuli together so that we begin to respond to one in the same way as we already respond to the other
61
What is a primary reinforcer?
something that directly supplies a reward
eg. food relieves hunger = reward
62
What is a secondary reinforcer?
the person that is responsible for supplying the reward
eg. the mother/caregiver which gives the infant the food (reward) - this makes the infant attached to this particular person
63
what is a stimulus?
anything, internal or external that brings about a response
64
what is a response?
any reaction in the presence of a stimulus
65
what is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
a stimulus that produces a reflex (innate) action
66
what is a unconditioned response (UCR)?
an innate, reflex response
67
what is a neutral stimulus (NS)?
a stimulus which does not naturally produce a response
68
what is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
the new stimulus which produces the learned response
69
what is conditioned response (CR)?
a learned response
70
How can social learning theory be linked to learning theory within attachment?
we might observe role models with whom we identify being rewarded for caring behaviours - the mediational process of modelling allows vicarious reinforcement - imitation then results in direct reinforcement
71
What was Bowlby's evolutionary theory of attachment?
the idea that we have an innate tendency to form attachments because they give a survival advantage - an infant who is attached is better protected
72
T/F? attachments are a two-way process - parents must also be attached to their infants in order to ensure that they are cared for to survive
TRUE - it is only the parents who look after their offspring that are likely to produce subsequent generations
73
T/F? attachment is a biological process developed through natural selection
TRUE
74
What are social releasers?
Bowlby suggested that babies are born with a set of innate 'cute' features and behaviours that encourage attention from adults - these activate the innate adult attachment system
75
What are the two different types of social releasers? - give examples for each:
1. Physical - typical 'baby' face eg. big eyes. small nose etc.
2. Behavioural - eg. crying, cooing etc.
76
What type of process did Bowlby realise that attachment was?
Bowlby realised it was a reciprocal process - both the mother and the baby have an innate predisposition to become attached and social releasers trigger that response in a caregiver
77
When did Bowlby think these attachments between infants and caregivers should form?
During a critical period - around 2 yrs
78
What did Bowlby think would happen if attachments weren't formed in the critical period?
that the infants would have difficulty forming attachments later on in life
79
What is monotropy?
a relationship when a primary attachment is of special significance to their emotional development
80
What is the internal working model?
child forms a mental representation of their relationship with their primary caregiver - gives a child a model of what relationships are like
81
What is the continuity hypothesis?
when individuals who are securely attached in infancy continue to be socially and emotionally competent - likely to have secure relationships as an adult
82
What 5 points could you make about Bowlby in an exam question? (A Snap Chat Makes Images)
```
Adaptive
Social releasers
Critical period
Monotropy
Internal working model
```
83
Explain the Minnesota parent-child project in 5 steps
1. over many years - mother-child pairs were followed
2. study uses questionnaires and videos of them interacting to collect data
3. the mothers were always aware that they were being filmed
4. naturalistic observation
5. used by Sroufe et al. to show the continuity hypothesis
84
What type of observation was Ainsworth's strange situation?
Controlled
85
What was the aim of Ainsworth's strange situation?
to measure security of attachment that a child displays toward a caregiver
86
Where did Ainsworth's strange situation take place?
in a room with controlled conditions
87
Who took part in Ainsworth's strange situation?
100 middle-class American infants and their mothers
88
What happened during Ainsworth's strange situation? (what happened in the experiment?)
consisted of a series of structured situations in a specific order
89
How many attachment types were there in Ainsworth's strange situation?
3 - A, B and C
90
What was type A attachment in Ainsworth's strange situation called? Give 4 points about it:
insecure avoidant attachment
- these children explore freely + do not seek proximity
- do not show secure base behaviour
- show little or no reaction when caregiver leaves and little stranger anxiety
- doesn't need comforting on mothers return
91
What percentage of children in Ainsworth's strange situation were found to be type A attachment?
22%
92
What was type B attachment in Ainsworth's strange situation called? Give 3 points about it:
secure avoidant attachment
- explore happily but regularly fo back to caregiver
- show moderate separation distress + stranger anxiety
- require and accept comfort on caregivers return
93
What percentage of children in Ainsworth's strange situation were found to be type B attachment?
66%
94
What was type B attachment in Ainsworth's strange situation called? Give 3 points about it:
insecure resistant attachment
- seek greater proximity than others + explore less
- show huge separation + stranger distress
- resist comfort when reunited with caregiver
95
What percentage of children in Ainsworth's strange situation were found to be type C attachment?
12%
96
What did Ainsworth later add to her strange situation research?
A fourth type called 'disorganised' - she realised that not all kids would fit into one of these three 'types'
97
What did Main et al. (1981) find out about the types of attachment children showed with mothers and fathers? (links to ainsworth's strange situation)
that they seemed to show different 'types' with mothers and fathers
98
What was the correlation of Ainsworth's strange situation observer scores?
0.94 - they were 94% consistent which is rather high
| a good score is usually considered to be 0.80
99
Give 3 features of Ainsworth's 'disorganised' attachment type in kids:
- fears close proximity to abusive parents
- little/no sense of safety in relationships
- cannot self-regulate emotions
100
Give 3 features of Ainsworth's 'disorganised' attachment type in adults:
- extreme rage in response to threat
- little/no personal boundaries
- fears showing vulnrability
101
Describe what happened to the mother and child in Ainsworth's strange situation in 8 steps:
1. mother + infant in new room - mother sits and infant free to explore on floor
2. stranger enters room and talks to mother (same stranger used throughout experiment)
3. stranger leans forward and tries to engage with infant through play and talk
4. mother leaves room leaving baby with stranger - stranger tries to comfort baby if it gets upset
5. mother returns and stranger leaves
6. mother leaves and baby is alone
7. instead of mother returning the stranger returns and tries to comfort the baby
8. mother re-enters the room and stranger leaves
102
Which 'type' of attachment did Ainsworth say is best?
Secure attachment (type B) - these kids will grow up to be happier and will have better lives - parents who don't achieve this will be failing their children.
103
Define culture
a set of norms, traditions, beliefs and values shared by a large group of people
104
define individualist cultures
typically western, emphasise independence, individuality and autonomy at the expense of group goals, resulting in a strong sense of competition
105
what are collectivist cultures?
typically eastern, emphasise group membership, independence and cooperation
106
what are cultural variations?
differences in norms and values that exist between people in different groups
107
What did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) do?
a meta-analysis od 32 strange situation replications - they looked for both inter-cultural (between cultures) and intra-cultural (within cultures) differences
108
How many participants were there in Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) study?
2000 participants - 18 of the 32 strange situations were in the USA
109
What is separation according to Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation?
when the child is not in the presence of the primary attachment figure. brief separations, particularly when the child is with a substitute caregiver - don't have significant impact on development
extended separations can lead to deprivation, which causes harm
110
What is deprivation according to Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation?
when the child loses an element of the primary attachment figures emotional care. This then becomes an issue for development
111
What is Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory?
focuses on how the effects of early experiences may interfere with the usual processes of attachment formation
112
What is Bowlby referring to when he talks about maternal deprivation?
the long-term separation or loss of emotional care from the mother or mother-substitute
113
In Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory, what did he think would happen if attachment was broken during the critical period (the first 2.5 yrs)?
the child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences of this maternal deprivation - the risk continues until age 5
114
What did Bowlby propose about continuous care from a mother in his maternal deprivation theory?
that continuous care from a mother is essential for normal psychological development, and that prolonged separation from this adult causes serious damage to emotional and intellectual development
115
What 3 things did Bowlby think would happen if there was deprivation in the critical period? (maternal deprivation theory)
1. delinquency (crime/immoral)
2. depression
3. affectionless psychopathy (inability to feel empathy)
116
What was the aim of Bowlby's (1944) 44 thieves study?
to provide evidence to support the maternal deprivation hypothesis in a sample of children attending the Tavistock child guidance centre
117
What is the continuity hypothesis?
suggests that later relationships are likely to be a continuation of early attachment types
118
What did Myron-Wilson (1998) find out about insecure-avoidant infants and insecure-resistant infants later on in childhood?
insecure-avoidant infants are most likely to be bullied
insecure-resistant infants are most likely to be bullies
(questionnaire to 196 children ages 7-11 from London)
119
What was it predicted that secure-attachments infants would be like later on in childhood?
less isolates, more popular and more empathetic
120
What did McCarthy (1999) find out about what securely-attached, insecure-avoidant attached and insecure-resistant attached infants and what their relationships were like later on in adulthood with romantic partners?
secure-attached = best adult friendships and relationships
insecure-avoidant = struggled with intimacy in their romantic relationships
insecure-resistant = had particular problems maintaining friendships
(studied 40 adult women who has been assessed when they were infants to establish their early attachment type)
121
Why did Hazan and Shaver (1987) create their love quiz?
they wanted to see if there was a correlation between the infant's attachment type and their future approach to romantic relationships
122
How many replies did Hazan and Shaver's (1987) love quiz receive?
620
123
What were the three sections of Hazan and Shaver's (1987) love quiz?
1/2. current or most important relationship
| 3. general love experiences
124
What percentages of each type of early attachment did Hazan and Shaver (1987) find in their love quiz?
56% securely attached
25% insecure-avoidant
19% insecure-resistant
125
What did Hazan and Shaver (1987) find out about the three different attachment types future relationships in their love quiz?
secure-attachment = most likely to have good, longer lasting romantic experiences
insecure-avoidant = tended to reveal jealous fear of intimacy
insecure-resistant = tended to fall in love easily but found it hard to find true love
126
What was the conclusion of Hazan and Shaver's (1987) love quiz?
these findings suggest that patterns of attachment behaviour are reflected in adult romantic relationships
127
What did Bailey et al. (2007) do in order to find out whether people base their parenting style later on in life on their internal working model?
considered the attachments of 99 mothers to their babies and to their own mothers
mother-infant attachment was assessed using the strange situation and mother-own mother attachment was assessed using an adult attachment interview
the majority of women had the same attachment type as their babies and mothers
128
Define orphan
a child whose parents have either died or abandoned them
129
What did did President Nicolae Ceausescu do in romania in 1966?
he incentivised Romanian women to have more children and banned abortion
- mothers of >5 babies got large tax cuts
- mothers of >10 babies became 'heroine mothers'
130
What was the result of Romania's new laws involving children?
Romania was very poor so many families couldn't support all these children
Romania's 1989 revolution overthrew Ceausescu and all those unwanted children were later discovered in government run institutions - they had each experiences much more than maternal deprivation
131
What was Rutter et al's. (2011) study?
longitudinal natural study of the long-term effects of institutionalisation and maternal deprivation
132
What did Rutter rename the critical period?
The sensitive period
133
What was the conclusion of Rutter's (2011) study?
appears children can recover and it will be slower development rather than irreversible change
they are more likely to have less severe consequences if they are able to form attachments later on
134
Give two real-life applications of Rutter's (2011) study?
- studies have improved conditions in children's institutions (eg. each child now has a key worker)
- they also show that we can recover from bad attachment experiences (Rutter said this was because 'nice' children got special treatment and Bowlby says this was due to individual coping differences)
135
Give two more examples of orphan studies like Rutter's (2011) study
- Zeanah et al. (2005) - 95 children ages 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care (90% on average) compared to 50 children who had never been in an institution - attachment types were measured using the strange situation - discovered 19% of the institutionalised kids were securely attached with 74% of the control group
- Le Mare and Audet (2006) - reported findings from a longitudinal study of 36 romanian orphans adopted to families in canada - DV's were physical growth and health - the adopted orphans were psychically smaller ha the matched control group bur this difference disappeared by 10 and a half years - the same was true for physical health
136
How many orphans were studied in Rutter's (2011) study?
165
137
What was the method of Rutter's (2011) study?
- orphans adopted in britain
- followed and assessed at ages 4, 6, 11 and 15 - info gathered in interviews with parents and teachers
- 52 children in control group - all adopted before the age of six months
138
Give three results of Rutter's (2011) study
- by age 4, some children had caught up with their british counterparts
- at age 11 the adopted children showed differential rates of recover that were related to their age of adoption
- children adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachment symptoms such as attention-seeking and clinginess however those adopted before 6 months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment
139
What is institutionalisation?
refers to the effects of living in an institutional setting e.g hospital, orphanage, where children live for long, continuous periods of time. There is often very little emotional care provided
140
What are the 7 main effects of institutionalisation?
- physical underdevelopment - (developmental dwarfism)
- intellectual underfunctioning/low IQ
- disinhibited attachment
- poor parenting
- emotional functioning - affectionless psychopathy
- lack on internal working model
- Quasi-autism
141
What is disinhibited attachment?
a form of insecure attachment where children are equally friendly and affectionate towards people they know well and strangers. They may also be attention seeking and clingy. It is thought that this is an adaptation to living with multiple caregivers during the sensitive period of attachment formation
142
What is quasi-autism?
children in institutional care sometimes have difficulty understanding the meaning of social contexts and may display obsessional behaviour
