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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is coding?

A

the form information is stored in

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2
Q

what is duration?

A

how long information lasts in your memory

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3
Q

what is capacity?

A

how much information can be stored in your memory

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4
Q

what is short term memory (STM)?

A

items your using now

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5
Q

what is long term memory (LTM)?

A

stored items you can access again

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6
Q

what is retrieval?

A

accessing information from your LTM

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7
Q

what is attention?

A

mental focus on an object

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8
Q

what is episodic memory?

A

memory that has a narrative

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9
Q

what is semantic memory?

A

memory that has a meaning

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10
Q

what is acoustic memory?

A

memory based on sounds/words/rhythms

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11
Q

what is rehearsal?

A

attending to information so that it stays in your memory

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12
Q

what type of psychology was memory originally based upon?

A

cognitive psychology

  • “the amazing brain” (Craik, 2001)
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13
Q

what type of coding is used in your STM?

A

acoustic

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14
Q

How is information kept in your STM?

A

using rehearsal

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15
Q

what is the capacity of your STM?

A

limited capacity, between 5-9 items on average

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16
Q

what does your STM allow you to do?

A

process and recall information straight away

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17
Q

when does information enter the LTM?

A

information goes here after the STM to be stored more permanently

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18
Q

what type of coding is used in your LTM?

A

semantic

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19
Q

what is the capacity of your LTM?

A

LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and can hold information for years

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20
Q

how long can you keep information in your STM for?

A

18-30 seconds

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21
Q

how long can you keep information in your LTM for?

A

a potential lifetime

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22
Q

What did Miller (1956) argue and conclude?

A
  • argued most things come in 7’s

- concluded that on average we can recall 7 items (7 plus or minus 2 items (5-9))

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23
Q

What else did Miller (1956) discover?

A

we can remember 5 words as easily as 5 letters through chunking

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24
Q

Who conducted the digit span test?

A

Jacobs (1887)

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25
Q

Give the method of the digit span test in two steps

A
  1. researcher gives a number of digits and participants has to recall them all in order
  2. researcher then increases amount by one digit and participant has to recall again until they cannot recall the correct order - this determines their digit span
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26
Q

What were the results (means) of Jacobs’ (1887) digit span test using digits and letters?

A

mean digits = 9.3 items

mean letters = 7.3 letters

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27
Q

What did Peterson and Peterson (1959) study?

A

the duration of short term memory (STM)

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28
Q

Who participates in the Peterson and Peterson (1959) study?

A

24 students - each participant tested over 8 trials

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29
Q

describe the method in the Peterson and Peterson (1959) study in 3 steps

A
  1. in each trial participants were given a constant syllable and a 3 digit number (eg. THX 512)
  2. they were then asked to recall these over different intervals
  3. during the interval they had to count backwards from their 3 digit number
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30
Q

What were the results of the Peterson and Peterson (1959) study?

A
  • participants on average were 90% correct over 3 seconds, 20% correct over 9 seconds and only 2% correct over 18 seconds
  • they concluded that the short term memory (STM) duration was less than 18 seconds
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31
Q

What did Bahrick (1975) study?

A

the duration of LTM - tested 400 people on memory of past classmates

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32
Q

Describe Bahrick’s (1975) study in 3 steps

A
  1. photo recognition test consisted of 50 photos from high school year books
  2. participants asked to recall their classmates names
  3. participants all tested between 15-48 years of graduation
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33
Q

What were the results of the Bahrick (1975) study?

A
  • participants tested within 15yrs of graduation = about 90% accurate identifying faces
  • participants tested within 48yrs of graduation = 70%
  • participants after 15yrs with free recall = 60% accurate
  • participants after 48yrs with free recall = 30% accurate
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34
Q

What did Baddeley (1966) study?

A

used word lists to test the effects of acoustic and semantic similarity on long term memory (LTM) and short term memory (STM)

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35
Q

What did Baddeley discover about the effects of acoustic and semantic similarity on long term memory (LTM) and short term memory (STM) in his (1966) study?

A
  • found participants had difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in the short term memory (STM) but not in the long term memory (LTM)
  • whereas semantically similar words posed little problem for short term memories (STMs) but led to muddled long term memories (LTMs)
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36
Q

What was the conclusion Baddeley’s (1966) study?

A

suggested that the short term memory (STM) is largely encoded acoustically whereas the long term memory (:TM) is largely encoded semantically

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37
Q

Who created the Multi-store model of memory in 1968?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin

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38
Q

What did Sperling (1960) study?

A

sensory memory (SM)

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39
Q

Describe Sperling’s (1960) study in two steps

A
  1. participants were given a grid of digits and were shown it for 50 milliseconds
  2. participants were either asked to write down all 12 digits in the grid or just one row of the digits (eg. high, medium or low)
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40
Q

What were the results of Sperling’s (1960) study?

A
  • whole grid - 5 items recalled = 42% accurate

- one row - 3 items recalled = 75% accurate

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41
Q

What two things did Sperling conclude in his (1960) study?

A
  • participants didn’t remember all 4 in a row = suggests sensory memory (SM) cannot hold information for long
  • information decays rapidly in the sensory store! - supports the existence of the sensory store
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42
Q

What did Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) study?

A

the serial position effect - remembering words from the beginning and end of a list

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43
Q

Describe the method Glanzer and Cunitz used in their (1966) study in two steps

A
  1. showed participants a list of 20 words, presented one at a time
  2. asked participants to recall words - most remembered words from the beginning and the end of the list however missed some in the middle
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44
Q

What is the primary effect?

A

remembering the first 5 things in a list/sequence (Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)) (links to LTM)

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45
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

remembering the last 5 things in a list/sequence (Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)) (links to LTM)

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46
Q

What are the three different types of long term memory (LTM)?

A
  1. procedural
  2. semantic
  3. episodic
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47
Q

What types of memories does the procedural LTM (long term memory) store?

A

unconscious, physical memories (eg. the star test that HM did)

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48
Q

What types of memories does the semantic LTM (long term memory) store?

A

meaning or facts memories found (something you know)

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49
Q

What types of memories does the episodic LTM (long term memory) store?

A

narrative memories, conscious - uses the hippocampus

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50
Q

Who created the working memory model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

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51
Q

What two things does the working memory model consist of that the MSM does nor?

A
  1. central executive

2. the 3 slave systems (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffer

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52
Q

What is the capacity of the central executive?

A

Limited (unknown how many items)

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53
Q

What does the central executive do?

A

determines how resources are allocated - involves reasoning and decision making tasks - selects strategies but can only do a limited number of things at a time

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54
Q

What did Baddeley describe the central executive as?

A

the ‘company boss’

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55
Q

What are the 3 slave systems called?

A
  1. phonological loop
  2. visuo-spatial sketchpad
  3. episodic buffer
56
Q

What is the capacity of the phonological loop?

A

limited

57
Q

What is the function of the phonological loop?

A

deals with auditory information and preserves word order - ‘inner ear’

58
Q

What two things did Baddeley further subdivide the phonological loop into?

A
  1. phonological store

2. articulatory process

59
Q

What is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

visual and/or spatial information stored here - ‘inner eye’

60
Q

What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

limited capacity = 3-4 objects

61
Q

Who suggested a subdivision of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Logie (1995)

62
Q

What were the two sections of the subdivision of the visuo-spatial sketchpad called?

A
  1. visuo-cache (store)

2. inner scribe for spatial relations

63
Q

When was the episodic buffer added the the WMM?

A

Later on when Baddeley added this as he realised mode; needed a more general store (2000)

64
Q

What is the function of the episodic buffer?

A

integrates information for all areas

65
Q

What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?

A

Limited capacity of 4 chunks

66
Q

Why did Baddeley and Hitch carry out the dual task performance study in 1976?

A

to show we can subdivide short term memory into different components

67
Q

What were the two IV’s of the dual task performance study (Baddeley and Hitch (1976))?

A

IV 1. central executive (CE) occupied by repeating a word

IV 2. CE and AL occupied by repeating a random number sequence

68
Q

What was the DV of the dual task performance study (Baddeley and Hitch (1976))?

A

DV = true/false task accuracy (seconds and errors)

69
Q

What were the findings of the dual task performance study (Baddeley and Hitch (1976))?

A

findings = reduced accuracy when 2 working memory areas are used together

70
Q

What was the conclusion of the dual task performance study (Baddeley and Hitch (1976))?

A

conclusion = existence of the CE and AL is supported and they are functionally different

71
Q

What did Bunge et al. use fMRI scans for in 2000?

A

to see which parts of the brain are active when participants were doing two tasks

72
Q

What were the results of Bunge et al.’s study of fMRI scans (2000)?

A

the same brain areas were active in either dual or single task conditions but there was significantly more activation in the dual conditions

73
Q

What is the word-length effect (Baddeley et al. (1973))?

A

phonological loop will only include items you can say in 1.5-2 seconds - making it harder to remember longer words

74
Q

How can you remove the word length effect (Baddeley et al. (1973))?

A

keep saying a word while reading and this process disappears

75
Q

What type of coding does the central executive use?

A

it is modality free (no storage)

76
Q

What type of coding does the phonological loop use?

A

acoustic

77
Q

What type of coding does the visuo-spatial sketchpad use?

A

visual

78
Q

What type of coding does the episodic buffer use?

A

modality free (no storage)

79
Q

What was the retrieval failure theory (Tulving et al. (1973))?

A

the reason that we forget is due to insufficient cues

80
Q

What is schematic memory (Tulving et al. (1973))?

A

all memories are encoded with information from the environment - these are like the ‘webs’; in the brain/mind, they are all interconnected and it’s impossible to use one part of a memory without ‘pulling in’ others

81
Q

How do cues help us to remember?

A

by helping to retrieve the schema, fewer cues = more likely to forget

82
Q

What do schematic items that are associated with target memories act as?

A

cues

83
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

the greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original memory

84
Q

What are the two different types of cue dependent forgetting?

A
  1. context = external environmental cues

2. state = internal cues

85
Q

What was the aim of Godden and Baddeley’s 1975 study on context-dependent forgetting?

A

to investigate whether context affects memory

86
Q

Describe the method of Godden and Baddeley’s 1975 study on context-dependent forgetting in 5 steps

A
  1. scuba divers given a list of words
  2. IV (1) = on land
  3. IV (2) = underwater
  4. DV (1) = number of words recalled on land
  5. DV (2) = number of words recalled underwater
87
Q

What were the findings of Godden and Baddeley’s 1975 study on context-dependent forgetting?

A

recall significantly better in original context

88
Q

What was the conclusion of Godden and Baddeley’s 1975 study on context-dependent forgetting?

A

forgetting is context-dependent

89
Q

What was the aim of Goodwin et al.’s 19869 study on state-dependent forgetting?

A

to discover if mental/physical state affects memory

90
Q

Describe the method of Goodwin et al.’s 1969 study on state-dependent forgetting in 5 steps

A
  1. independent groups design
  2. male volunteers given a lost of words
  3. IV (1) = at 3 times above the legal drink drive limit
  4. IV (2) = sober
  5. DV = number of words recalled after 24hrs (all participants randomly assigned to be drunk or sober for the DV)
91
Q

What were the findings of Goodwin et al.’s 19869 study on state-dependent forgetting?

A

recall significantly better in original state (even if that was drunk!)

92
Q

What was the conclusion of Goodwin et al.’s 19869 study on state-dependent forgetting?

A

forgetting is state-dependent

93
Q

What is the interference theory of forgetting?

A
  • LTM has an unlimited capacity and should last a lifetime

- we forget info in the LTM because they are gone (availability) or because we can’t reach them anymore (accessibility)

94
Q

What is interference?

A

when one memory disturbs the ability to recall another - resulting in forgetting or distorting one or both - more likely to happen when they are similar

95
Q

what is proactive interference?

A

previously learnt information interferes with the new information you are trying to store

96
Q

what is retroactive interference?

A

when a new memory interferes with an old memory

97
Q

What aspect of interference did McGeoch and McDonald (1931) study?

A

evidence has shown that the more similar the interference is to the words being remembered, the worse recall is - to see this they compared similar with different interference stimuli in their study

98
Q

What were the results of McGeoch and McDonald’s (1931) interference study?

A

the effect lowered recall ability, making it around 3 times worse - similarity principle

99
Q

What was the DV in Baddeley and Hitch’s (rugby player study) interference study?

A

DV = number of names remembered by two types of rugby players

100
Q

What were the two IV’s in Baddeley and Hitch’s (rugby player study) interference study?

A

IV (1) = rugby player injured after 3rd game

IV (2) = rugby player played whole season

101
Q

What was the aim in Baddeley and Hitch’s (rugby player study) interference study?

A

aim = to study retroactive interference

102
Q

What was the conclusion in Baddeley and Hitch’s (rugby player study) interference study?

A

conclusion = fewer games played led to more accuracy in remembering names of fellow rugby players

103
Q

What type of study was Baddeley and Hitch’s (rugby player study) interference study?

A

A natural study

104
Q

What was the aim in Underwood’s 1957 interference study?

A

aim = to show proactive interference

105
Q

What was the conclusion in Underwood’s 1957 interference study?

A

conclusion = if participants memorised 10 or more lists, then after 24 hrs they remembered about 20% of what they’ve learnt - ones with only one list remembered over 70%

106
Q

What was the method used in Underwood’s 1957 interference study?

A

varying numbers of word lists given to participants, they waited a 24hr period and had to remember lists after this period

107
Q

T/F: Christianson and Hubinette (1993) thought that anxiety helped to make strong memories

A

TRUE

108
Q

T/F: Johnson and Scott (1976) thought that anxiety makes memory formation better

A

FALSE - THEY THOUGHT THAT ANXIETY MADE MEMORY FORMATION WORSE

109
Q

What is anxiety?

A

Unpleasant state or increased physiological arousal

110
Q

What is cognition?

A

Capacity to process information

111
Q

What was the aim of Christianson and Hubinette’s (1993) study?

A

To investigate the effects of anxiety on eyewitness recall, with 58 real bank robbery eyewitnesses, 4-15 months after the accident

112
Q

What were the IV’s of Christianson and Hubinette’s (1993) study?

A
  1. IV(1) = víctimas of crime (eg. a staff member)

2. IV(2) = bystander of crime (eg. a customer)

113
Q

What was the DV of Christianson and Hubinette’s (1993) study?

A

DV = detail match of eyewitness stories to the CCTV of the crimes

114
Q

What were the findings of Christianson and Hubinette’s (1993) study?

A

All victims above 75% average accuracy - victims reporting more anxiety had better recall (positive correlation)

115
Q

What was the conclusion of Christianson and Hubinette’s (1993) study?

A

Semantic/episodic memory formation is better when anxious

116
Q

What was the aim of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) study?

A

To investigate the effect of anxiety on eyewitness recall

117
Q

What were the IV’s of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) study?

A
  1. IV(1) = witness argument, see confederate holding greasy pen
  2. IV(2) = witness argument, see confederate holding bloody knife
118
Q

What was the DV of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) study?

A

DV = ID of criminal accuracy (%)

119
Q

What were the findings of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) study?

A

Pen - 49%

Knife - 33%

120
Q

What was the conclusion of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) study?

A

Weapon focus effect

  • replication involves a raw chicken
121
Q

Evaluate the Yerkes-Dodson curve in 4 points

A
  • too simple, lacks internal validity…
  • recall tests showed sudden decline after peak anxiety was passed…
  • furthermore, catastrophe theory…
  • this means…
122
Q

What is an eyewitness testimony?

A

Evidence given in court or to a police investigator from someone who’s witnessed a crime or an accident - refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed

123
Q

What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study?

A

To test if the language (leading questions) used in an eyewitness testimony can alter the memory of an event

124
Q

What type of experiment was the Loftus and Palmer (1974) study?

A

laboratory experiment

125
Q

What design was the Loftus and Palmer (1974) study?

A

Independent groups design

126
Q

What was the IV of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study?

A

The verb used by the investigator when describing the crime (eg. hit, collided, contacted)

127
Q

What was the DV of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study?

A

DV = entered speed

128
Q

Describe the method of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study in 4 steps

A
  1. Participants shown 7 clips of car accidents and asked questions about it
  2. They were in 5 groups of 9
  3. Each group was asked a critical question - how fast were the cars travelling when they HIT/COLLIDED/CONTACTED each other?
  4. They were each asked whether they saw broken glass as a follow up
129
Q

Who took part in Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study?

A

45 students

130
Q

What is reconstruction?

A
  • when labels/names prompt involvement of schemas

- reproductions show memory distortion over time (Bartlett (1932))

131
Q

Give a study that shows reproduction

A

Carmichael, Hogen and Walter (1932)

  • stimulus sketch given two labels, participants asked to reproduce the sketch dependo on the label that they were told
132
Q

What study did Allport and Postman carry out in 1947?

A
  • participants read a story about mugging on a subway and were then asked to identify the criminal
  • when asked to identify the criminal, most reported that he was black
133
Q

What is post-event discussion?

A
  • leads to memory reconstruction

- memories changed every time they’re recalled

134
Q

Give 4 things that happen in cognitive interviews

A
  • participants asked to REPORT EVERYTHING they remember (leading questions stopped as they can lead to false responses)
  • MENTAL REINSTATEMENT (aim is to make memories more accessible which is why state/context is used
  • CHANGE THE ORDER OF EVENTS WHEN RECALLING (this prevents your pre-existing schema influencing your memory)
  • CHANGE THE PERSPECTIVE (this distrusts the effect schemas have on recall and prevents anxiety/neurotic thoughts)
135
Q

Give three strengths of cognitive interviews

A
  • structured
  • up to 50% more information remembered by witnesses (however this is not all useful information)
  • open-ended questions = witnesses remember things in their own words = better memory and more accurate results
136
Q

Give four weaknesses of cognitive interviews

A
  • much more time consuming
  • inventive for interviewer
  • this technique is only useful with co-operative witnesses
  • there is still a danger of asking leading questions

Psychology (12 decks)

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