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Bio40b > Respiratory System Concepts > Flashcards

Respiratory System Concepts Flashcards

1
Q

FWhat are the structures of the upper respiratory tract?

A

Nose
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Nasal conchae
Tonsils
Soft palate
Oral cavity

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2
Q

What are the structures of the lower respiratory tract?

A

Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
- Conducting
- Respiratory
Alveoli

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3
Q

What structures are considered part of the conducting zone? The respiratory zone? Are there more structures in the conducting or respiratory zone?

A

Conduction zone: more structures in conduction
Nose
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Nasal conchae
Tonsils
Soft palate
Oral cavity
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
- conducting

Respiratory zone:
Bronchioles
- Respiratory
Alveoli

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4
Q

Which structures are responsible for convecting the air in the nasal cavity? How does the convection of air throughout the nasal cavity help it be filtered, warmed, and moistened?

A

The superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae convect, circulate, the air around the nasal cavity, which gives more time for the air to contact with the nasal capillaries to warm the air and the goblet cells of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity to moisten the air.

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5
Q

What critical property does the nasal cartilage give to the respiratory tract?

A

The nasal cartilage gives patency to the respiratory tract (keeps the nasal cavity expanded and “open” while inhaling and exhaling)

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6
Q

Which is the primary epithelium of the conducting zone? What do we call the very important mucous-producing and secreting cells within this epithelium? Other than mucous production, what is the function of this epithelium? When material is “swept” out of the nasal cavity by the cilia, in which direction is it being swept?

A

The primary epithelium of the conducting zone is the pseudostratified ciliated columnar. We call the mucous-producing and secreting cells within this epithelium goblet cells. Besides mucous production, the function of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium is to sweep foreign particles. Dust particles coated in mucous are swept inferiorly into the pharynx for removal through the oral cavity.

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7
Q

Location-wise, how are the internal and external nares different?

A

Internal nares are in the posterior nasal cavity
External nares are located near the opening of the nostrils

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8
Q

What are some sources of moisture in the nasal cavity?

A

Lacrimal glands (moisture that drains into the nasal cavity)

Moisture trapped in the nasal cavity during exhalation

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9
Q

What is the order, superiorly to inferiorly, of the 3 parts of the pharynx?

A

Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

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10
Q

What are the 3 ways air can leave the nasopharynx?

A

Nostrils, oropharynx (oral cavity), Eustachian tube

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11
Q

Which tonsil(s) are found in the nasopharynx? The oropharynx? Laryngopharynx?

A

Nasopharynx: Pharyngeal tonsil

Oropharynx: Palatine tonsil and Lingual tonsil

Laryngoparynx: None

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12
Q

Which substance(s) is conducted through the nasopharynx? Through the oropharynx? Through the laryngopharynx?

A

Nasopharynx: air

Oropharynx: air and food

Laryngoparynx: air and food

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13
Q

Which epithelium shows up in parts of the pharynx that only conduct air? In the parts
that conduct air and food and drink?

A

Only air = pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Air and food and drink= non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

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14
Q

What are the 3 singular, large pieces of cartilage bordering the trachea? What is the function of each of these 3 singular cartilages? How does your epiglottis save your life about 50 times per day?

A

Epiglottis (superior) = folds inferiorly to cover the opening to the larynx during swallowing to prevent food from entering and obstructing airflow

Thyroid cartilage (anterior border of the larynx) = Adam’s apple

Cricoid cartilage (posterior border of the larynx) = important structure for the “attachment” of the cartilages of phonation

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15
Q

What is the primary function of the 3 paired cartilages of the larynx?

A

Helps move the vocal cords to phonate

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16
Q

What is the difference between abducted and adducted vocal cords?

A

Abducted vocal cords = tighten the tension on the vocal cords

Adducted vocal cords = loosen the tension on the vocal cords

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17
Q

Above the vocal cords, what is the epithelium of the larynx? What is it below the vocal cords?

A

Above the vocal cords, the epithelium of the larynx is non-keratinized stratified squamous (food still present)

Below the vocal cords, the epithelial lining is pseudostratified ciliated columnar (push particles out)

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18
Q

In which direction are the cilia beating in the pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium of the trachea?

A

Superiorly up out of the trachea and into the pharynx

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19
Q

What aspects of the trachea are covered with cartilage as part of the cartilage ring? Anterior? Lateral? Posterior?

A

16-20 rings continuously circle the anterior and lateral circumference of the trachea but do not meet posteriorly

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20
Q

What structure will you find (instead of cartilage) on the posterior aspect of the trachea?

A

Trachealis muscle

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21
Q

What critical properties do the tracheal rings give to that part of the conducting zone of the respiratory tract?

A

Patency keeps the structure of the trachea open for airflow and allows the esophagus to expand when swallowing

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22
Q

As the burden of maintaining patency changes from cartilaginous rings to smooth muscle rings as you move through the bottom of the conducting zone, what is the added advantage of using smooth muscle rings for patency? What extra function can they give you?

A

Smooth muscles give patency, but also the ability to constrict and dilate the bronchioles

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23
Q

Why are sympathetic ANS chemicals good for asthma medicines?

A

Sympathetic ANS chemicals are good for asthma medicines as they dilate the bronchioles, making it easier to breathe

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24
Q

As you transition from the conducting to the respiratory zone, what is the change you’d expect in epithelium?

A

I expect the epithelium to become thinner, like a simple squamous epithelium, to facilitate gas exchange as I transition from conducting to the respiratory zone

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25
Q

How do we name the first 3 “levels” of bronchi stemming from the trachea?

A

Primary, secondary, and tertiary (Main, lobar, and segmental)

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26
Q

What do we call the part of the lung where the “roots” enter the lungs medially, carrying blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels?

A

Hilum

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27
Q

What is the difference, functionally, between pulmonary blood vessels and bronchial blood vessels?

A

Pulmonary blood vessels= carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs at low pressure

Bronchial blood vessels= carry oxygenated blood to the lung at a higher pressure

28
Q

How many lobes are in each lung? Which lung is bigger overall? Which lung has a cardiac notch carved out of it to seat the heart?

A

The right lung is a little bit larger and has 3 lobes

The left lung has a cardiac notch carved out to seat the heart and has 2 lobes

29
Q

What structure do the lungs rest on top of?

A

Diaphragm

30
Q

What do we call the serous membrane wrapping the lung itself and clinging to it like Saran Wrap? The serous membrane lining the pleural cavities? What fluid sits between these 2 serous membranes?

A

The serous membrane wrapping the lung itself is the visceral pleura
The serous membrane lining the pleural cavities is the parietal pleura
The fluid that sits between these 2 serous membranes is serous fluid

31
Q

Can you name the order of structures from the trachea all the way down to the alveoli?

A

Trachea
Main bronchi
Lobar bronchi
Segmental bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar saccules
alveoli

32
Q

What are the 4 parts of the respiratory membrane? How many belong to the alveoli? How many belong to the pulmonary capillary? Is the respiratory membrane thick or thin?

A

Type I Alveolar cell, Alveolar basement membrane, capillary basement membrane, and capillary endothelium

  • 2 belong to the alveoli
  • 2 belong to the pulmonary capillary

The respiratory membrane is thin, at 0.5um thick

33
Q

What is the role of surfactant in keeping the patency of the alveoli? How does this relate to surface tension?

A

To keep the alveoli from pulling down, you use a surfactant. The surfactant reduces surface tension at the air-water membrane in the alveoli, keeping patency

34
Q

What are the 3 types of cells found within the alveoli? What is the function of these 3 types of cells?

A

Type II cells secrete surfactant (alveolar fluid) which keeps the patency of the alveoli

Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) eat dust

35
Q

How does ventilation-perfusion coupling function, particularly in hypoxic areas of the lungs?

A

If alveoli of some areas of the lungs are low in available O2, pulmonary arteries in that area will constrict there in order to bring more blood to other areas of the lungs with more O2 available

36
Q

What are the 4 types of “Respirations” to consider? How many of the 4 take place in the lungs?

A

Pulmonary ventilation
External (pulmonary) respiration
Internal respiration
Cellular respiration

Pulmonary ventilation and external respiration take place in the lungs, so two of the four take place in the lungs

37
Q

Will you get more flow from 760 mm Hg to 742 mm Hg? Or from 758 mm Hg to 742 mm Hg?

A

760-742=18 758-742=16
760 mmHg to 742 mmHg because there’s a larger gradient

38
Q

What are the muscles of quiet inhalation? Quiet exhalation? Forceful inhalation? Forceful exhalation?

A

Quiet inhalation: diaphragm and external intercostals

Quiet exhalation: none

Forceful exhalation: abdominals and internal intercostals

Forceful inhalation: sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis minor

39
Q

What happens to the volume of the chest cavity during Inhalation? What happens to the pressure? What Law tells us how to keep track of pressure and volume changes?

A

The volume of the chest cavity increases during inhalation. The pressure decreases. Boyle’s law tells us how to keep track of pressure and volume changes: P1V1= P2V2

40
Q

How does alveolar pressure differ from interpleural pressure? Which is always higher? Why?

A

Alveolar is the pressure within the lungs
Interpleural pressure is the pressure in the pleural cavity outside the lungs

The alveolar pressure is always higher because when you increase the volume of the lungs by contracting the diaphragm and intercostal there’s room for the lungs to expand into the interpleural space (pleural cavity)

41
Q

Why is surface tension important in proper lung inflation during inhalation?

A

The surface tension pulls on the lungs during inhalation to expand it. The serous fluid between the parietal pleural and visceral pleural sticks the two membranes to each other just enough that then when one pulls, the other follows.

42
Q

What’s a common tidal volume during eupnea (quiet breathing)?

A

500 mL

43
Q

How do you calculate minute ventilation?

A

MV= respiratory rate x tidal volume

We quietly take a breath every 5 seconds or so…
MV = 12 breaths/min x 500mL/breath = 6 Liters/min

44
Q

Why is alveolar ventilation always lower than minute ventilation?

A

Alveolar ventilation is always lower than minute ventilation because only about 70% of the tidal volume actually reaches the respiratory zone.

45
Q

What are the 3 lung volumes that you can measure? What’s the 1 lung volume that can’t be measured, so has to be theoretical?

A

Measure:
- Inspiratory reserve volume (air you can inhale immediately after quiet inhalation)

  • Tidal volume (quiet volume)
  • Expiratory reserve volume (air you can exhale immediately after quiet exhalation)

Unmeasured:
- Residual volume (volume that stays in the lungs even after forceful exhalation)

46
Q

What are the 2 lung capacities that you can measure? What lung volumes do you combine to get those 2 measurable lung capacities? Which lung capacity can you not measure, that has to be theoretical.

A

The two lung capacities you can measure are inspiratory capacity and vital capacity.

Inspiratory capacity= inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume
Vital capacity= inspiratory reserve volume +expiratory reserve volume + tidal volume

The lung capacity that you can not measure is Total Lung Capacity and have to be theoretical.

47
Q

Which is always going to be smaller? Inspiratory reserve volume, or inspiratory capacity? What is the difference between the two, both physiologically and graphically on a spirometry recording?

A

Inspiratory reserve volume is always going to be smaller.

Inspiratory reserve volume is how much more air you can inhale immediately after quiet inhalation.

Inspiratory capacity is inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume (functionally the maximum amount of air you can inhale

48
Q

If oxygen is 20.9% of air, and the atmospheric pressure of air is 760 mm Hg at sea level, what is the PO2 at sea level?

A

0.209 x 760 mmHg = 159 mmHg

49
Q

How does the solubility of CO2 and O2 compare? How does this affect the transport of these 2 gases in the blood?

A

CO2 is 24 times more soluble (easily dissolvable in liquid/plasma) than O2

CO2 will easily go into the blood, however, moving O2 from air to blood is going to have strong resistance.

50
Q

Which law says that we can just treat each individual gas in a mixture independently?

A

Dalton’s law

51
Q

At the alveoli, does O2 move from air to blood, or blood to air? Why? At the alveoli, does CO2 move from air to blood, or blood to air? Why? What about the same questions at the tissue?

A

Gas will move from high partial pressure to lower parietal pressure until equilibrium is reached

Alveoli:
- O2 moves from air to blood because the partial pressure outside is higher than the partial pressure in the alveolar
- CO2 moves from the blood to the air because the partial pressure inside is higher than the partial pressure outside

Tissue:
- O2 moves from the blood to the tissues as the partial pressure of the blood is higher than the partial pressure of the tissues
- CO2 moves from the tissues to the blood because the partial pressure of the tissue is higher than the partial pressure of the blood

52
Q

What are some factors that will affect the oxygenation of blood in the lungs?

A
  • Heavily exercising tissues will drive down systemic tissue PO2, which will make O2 offload easier
  • The thinness of the respiratory membrane
  • Solubility of gases
53
Q

What % of oxygen carried in arterial blood can be transported without involving Hb?

A

1.5%

54
Q

How does the shape of the Hb-O2 saturation curve compare in the “loading” zone and in the “unloading” zone? Why is this important? What does it mean for the pick-up of O2 in the lungs under lower PO2 conditions? What does it mean for delivery at the tissues in harder working tissues vs. resting tissues?

A
  • The loading zone is flat and the unloading zone is a steep upwards hill
  • The flat shape of the loading zone is because the hemoglobin is so good at picking up oxygen at the loading zone
  • The steep hill shape in the unloading zone is because tissues are at work. At rest, you drop 25% of oxygen and give it to your tissues and bring back the 75% to the lungs. The affinity of hemoglobin drops as PO2 is less available. Meaning, at hard-working tissues you now drop 65% of oxygen.
  • At tissues that are working hard and are dropping in oxygen levels, hemoglobin gets there and unloads oxygen.
55
Q

How does the Bohr effect help heavily working tissues get more oxygen? How do elevated PCO2 and elevated temperature do the same?

A

Bohr effect:
- Working tissues have a lower pH
- When Ph is lowered, more oxygen is released

Elevated PCO2:
- Make a bunch of CO2 from actively working tissues
- The higher CO2 gets in the blood, the more oxygen is dropped off to give tissues what they need

Elevated temperature:
- When Hb gets around high temperatures, the affinity drops for oxygen and offloads oxygen at heavily working tissues

56
Q

How do the curves of fetal and maternal Hb ensure that O2 always moves towards fetal blood, from maternal blood?

A

At any given partial pressure, the fetal Hb can hold more oxygen than the maternal Hb, so oxygen will always go from the maternal to fetal blood.

The fetus can do nothing to increase oxygen to getting to its blood, but the mother can ventilate to get more oxygen

57
Q

If you hydrate CO2 (by combining it with H2O), which two species do you eventually produce? Which enzyme catalyzes this reaction?

A

You produce a proton (H+) and bicarbonate. Carbonic anhydrase in RBCs catalyzes this reaction.

58
Q

What are the 3 “ways” that CO2 can be carried in the blood to the lungs for offloading into the alveoli?

A

CO2 directly dissolved in plasma can diffuse out of the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli

CO2 carried by Hb is offloaded from Hb and can diffuse into the alveoli

CO2 carried as HCO3- can be offloaded if you reverse the reaction to combine bicarbonate with protons (H+) to make CO2 and H20

59
Q

Which brain stem center sets the fundamental rate of quiet breathing? Which other medullar center kicks in to help with forceful inhalation and exhalation?

A

The dorsal respiratory group (DRG) sets the fundamental rate of quiet breathing.

The ventral respiratory group (VRG) of the medullar center kicks in to help with forceful inhalation and exhalation by stimulating the diaphragm and internal intercostals.

60
Q

What are the 2 pontine respiratory centers? Which cuts off forceful inhalation when it’s getting out of control?

A

The pneumotaxic area and apneustic area.

The pneumotaxic area cuts off forceful inhalation when it’s getting out of control.

61
Q

Can you change the ventilation rate voluntarily? Which structures of the brain will drive this effort?

A

You can change the ventilation rate voluntarily. With input from the “cortical area,” you can choose when you want to hold your breath and for how long.

62
Q

Why can you not kill yourself by holding your breath?

A

The medullary rhythmicity area will kick in and start quiet breathing if you pass out from holding your breath

63
Q

What do chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and bodies of the aortic arch sense in arterial blood that helps set the respiration rate?

A

CO2, H+, and O2

64
Q

What are some higher inputs into the brainstem respiratory centers, that help control the ventilation rate?

A

Chemoreceptors

65
Q

For hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidosis, via classic negative feedback loops, will hypoventilation or hyperventilation be favored?

A

Hyperventilation

66
Q

Which CNs are going to bring afferent sensory info from the aortic arch bodies and the carotid bodies?

A

CN IX (glossalpharygneal) and CN X (vagus)

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